INTRODUCTION TO PHONOLOGY (PHONEMICS)

A. The Definition of Phonemics
As I’ve ever explained before that phonology has two fields. One of them is phonetics that has explained in latest chapter. The second one of the field is phonemics. Phonemics is the study of the sounds as a system (how they contrast one another and ways they can combine one another in language).
B. The Difference between Phoneme and Allophones.
Phoneme is a contrastive sound unit in a language; it is contrastive because it distinguishes meanings when exchanged for other phonemes in the language. It can also be said that phoneme is the smallest significant unit of language. For example, the contrast between /p/ and /d/ is established in pin-din or /s/ and /∫/ that is established in sin-shin. Allophones are variants of phoneme, and are in complementary distribution. For example in English is /l/ phoneme. /l/ has two variants: a “dark” /l/ occurs all other consonants and finally, for example field, felt, little. While clear /l/ occurs only before vowels and before /j/ for example love, light, million [miljən].
C. The segmental sounds of English
1 The English Consonant
There are about twenty-four in number of English consonants. They are /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/, /f/, /v/, /ø/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /∫/, /З/, /r/, /h/, /t∫/, /dЗ/, /w/, /j/, /ŋ/, /m/, /n/. I will only describe one of them. The example is /p/ that has two variants; they are [p] (voiceless, inspirited bilabial stop). It occurs in complementary distribution with [ph] (voiceless, aspirated bilabial stop), the letter appearing only before a vowel in the beginning of stressed syllables and released in word final position. The example of [p] “supper” /sΛpər/, and [ph] “pipe” /phaiph/.
2 The English vowels
There are fourteen in number of English vowels. I will describe one of them. They are /i:/, /i/, /ei/, /e/, /З/, /ə/, /æ/, /Λ/, /a/, /u:/, /əu/, /Ο/, /З/. I will give one description. The example is /i:/ and the allophones is [i:] (high close front unrounded). It occurs in all positions. “eat” /i:t/ [i:t] or “bee” /bi:/ [bi:].

3 Consonant clusters
A consonant cluster is s combination of two or more consonant. The examples:
Initial clusters:
/pr/ prove /bl/ blame /dr/ drink /ør/ through 
/skw/ square /skr/ scratch /str/ street /spr/ spring
Medial clusters:
/sk/ asking /mpl/ complete /nst/ constant /nstr/ construct
Final clusters:
/kt/ fact /mpts/ attempts /mps/ camps
D. Supra-segmental Sounds of English
1 Stress
Stress is the force of breath with which sounds are produced. Some linguist explained that stress that there are only three phonemic word stress level in English;
Primary stress – symbol: / /, 
Secondary stress – symbol: / /
Weak stress – symbol: / /
For example; man, academic, market.
2 Intonation
Intonation means the changes in the pitch of the voice while producing speech. Every utterance is produced with some intonation and pitch. 

Bibliography
Nasr, Raja T, The Essential of Linguistic Science, Longman House, Harlow, London, England, 1984.
Lyons, John, Language a Linguistic and Introduction, Cambridge University, New York, 1984.
Boey, Lim Kiat, Introduction to Linguistics for Language Teacher, Singapore University Press, Singapore, 1975.

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