MORPHOLOGY

A. The Different Between Morpheme and Allomorphs 
Morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning. E.g. The word "unbreakable" has three morphemes: "un-" (meaning not x), a bound morpheme; "-break-", a free morpheme; and "-able", a free morpheme. "un-" is also a prefix, "-able" is a suffix. Both are affixes.
Allomorphs are the different representation (VARIANT) of morpheme with the same meaning. E.g the morpheme plural-s has the morph "-s", IPA: [s], in cats ([kæts]), but "-es", [ɪz], in dishes ([dɪʃɪz]), and even the voiced "-s", [z], in dogs ([dɒgz]). These are the allomorphs of "-s"
B. The Types of Morpheme 
Free morphemes are the morphemes which can stand alone as single words. E.g. “free” and “close”. These morphemes are divided into two kinds of morphemes. The first is the set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verb that is called lexical morpheme. The examples are: man, beautiful, sing, and funny. The other one is called functional morphemes that consist of functional words such as conjunctions, pronouns, articles and prepositions and the examples are because, at, on, near, the, a, this. Bound morphemes are the morphemes which normally can’t stand alone but typically attached to another form. E.g re-, -ist, un-, -ed, -s. Bound morphemes are also divided into two types. 1. Derivational morphemes are used to make a new word in language. 2. Inflectional morphemes are not used to make new words of English language.
C. The Difference Between Stem and Root
Stem, being also called inflectional root, is the part of a word that is common to all its inflected variants. The example, the root of the English adjective form unbreakable is break and the stem is un-break-able, which include derivational affixes un- and –able. Root is the primary lexical unit of a word, that cannot be reduced into smaller constituents. It carries the most significant aspects of semantic content. The example, the root of the English verb form sleeping is sleep.

D. The Affixation and Its Types
Affixation is the result of the process of words forming by the combination of bound affixes and free morpheme. The types of affixations are:
Compounding, that is a process of words forming from two or more independent words. The example, notebook, boyfriend. Reduplication is a process that forms new words either by doubling an entire free morpheme (total reduplication) or part of it (partial reduplication). The example is willy-nilly. Morpheme-internal changes is a process of forming new words by morpheme-internal modification. The example are; mice-mouse, thief-thieves, go-went-gone. Suppletion is the process of forming new words irregularly. Those processes are exceptions. The example; run [rΛn]- ran [ræn].
E. Inflectional and Derivational Affixes
Inflectional affixes are affixes that are not used to make new words of English language and they can’t change in meaning. They can be suffixes (-s, -ing, -ed, -er, -est etc). Derivational affixes are affixes that are used to make new words and they can change in meaning. they can suffixes (-en, -able, -ful, -ment, -ion, -ize etc) or prefixes (en-, mis-, de-, un-, dis- etc).
F. Word Formation
Word formation is the ways of new words forming from bound and free morpheme. The combinations of bound and free morpheme are systematic. The example; the suffix –able, meaning “can” attaches only to adjectives, the prefix -nees attaches only to nouns, the suffix mis- attaches only to nouns etc.

Bibliography
Nasr, Raja T, The Essential of Linguistic Science, Longman House, Harlow, London, England, 1984.
Lyons, John, Language a Linguistic and Introduction, Cambridge University, New York, 1984.
Yule, George, The Study of Language an Introduction, Britanian: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
Jannedy, Stefanie cs, Language Files, Columbus: Ohio State University, 1994. 
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)

THE DEFINITION AND BRANCHES OF LINGUISTIC

The Definition of Linguistic
Linguistic is a science making language as scientific study. Ronald W. Langacker (1973:5) stated that linguistic is the study of human language. Stork and Widdowson (1985:15) gave explanation that Linguistic is the study of language. Moreover A.S Hornby, E.V Gatenby H Wakefield explained that linguistic is the language and languages. And John Lyons (1975:1) said that linguistic is may be defined as scientific study language. Based on Dictionary linguistic is the study of language.
The Branches of linguistic
1. General linguistic generally describes the concepts and categories of a particular language or among all language. It also provides analyzed theory of the language.
Descriptive linguistic describes or gives the data to confirm or refute the theory of particular language explained generally.
2. Historical linguistic divide into:
Synchronic description is a description about language in particular period in time.
Diachronic description is a description about a change or changes that took place over a period of time, sometimes over centuries.
3. Theoretical linguistics is the branch of linguistics that is most concerned with developing models of linguistic knowledge, such as the study of language structure (grammar) and meaning (semantic).
Applied linguistic is the branch of linguistic that is most concerned with application of the concepts in everyday life, including language-teaching.
4. Micro linguistic is narrower view. It is concerned internal view of language itself (structure of language systems) without related to other sciences and without related how to apply it in daily life. Some fields of micro linguistic:

a. Phonetics, the study of the physical properties of sounds of human language
b. Phonology, the study of sounds as discrete, abstract elements in the speaker's mind that distinguish meaning
c. Morphology, the study of internal structures of words and how they can be modified
d. Syntax, the study of how words combine to form grammatical sentences
e. Semantics, the study of the meaning of words (lexical semantics) and fixed word combinations (phraseology), and how these combine to form the meanings of sentences
f. Pragmatics, the study of how utterances are used (literally, figuratively, or otherwise) in communicative acts
g. Discourse analysis, the analysis of language use in texts (spoken, written, or signed)

Macro linguistic is broadest view of language. It is concerned external view of language itself with related to other sciences and how to apply it in daily life. Some fields of micro linguistic:
a. Stylistics, the study of linguistic factors that place a discourse in context.
b. Developmental linguistics, the study of the development of linguistic ability in an individual, particularly the acquisition of language in childhood.
c. Historical linguistics or Diachronic linguistics, the study of language change.
d. Language geography, the study of the spatial patterns of languages.
e. Evolutionary linguistics, the study of the origin and subsequent development of language.
f. Psycholinguistics, the study of the cognitive processes and representations underlying language use.
g. Sociolinguistics, the study of social patterns and norms of linguistic variability.
h. Clinical linguistics, the application of linguistic theory to the area of Speech-Language Pathology.
i. Neurolinguistics, the study of the brain networks that underlie grammar and communication.
j. Biolinguistics, the study of natural as well as human-taught communication systems in animals compared to human language.
k. Computational linguistics, the study of computational implementations of linguistic structures.




 

JOE


In the middle crowded town
The night is so quiet
And you look so down
As if life seems tired

When you sat over see
The wind blows slowly
But your mind is like wave in the sea
That is confused and messy

Joe,,,you are like a prisoner


The explanation: 
 The writer wants to compare Joe as prisoner whose life has no meaning. in the middle of town, Joe feels so confused what to do where he expects to do something but he has no power. He feels down and tired with his life that is full with problem. He thinks himself by looking at his around but it makes him sadder. 
 “but your mind is like wave in the sea” means that his mind so confused, he just do what glance in his mind as if he is lonely in width of life. his life goes no purpose.








MY DREAM

My dream is a struggle
Go forward
Step by step

My dream is a struggle
Step on surely
Spending much time and sacrifice

My dream is a struggle
Where sorrow, fear, and confusion I got


The explanation: 
 The writer tried to compare his dream is like a struggle. the writer steps on everything by plan of course. Because of the dream, the writer has spent much time for his life and sometimes got sorrow, fear and confusion. The writer believes that to catch our dream needs sacrifice, that is why he said, “My dream is a struggle”.

ARTICLE

 
Article in this chapter will focus on the definite article and indefinite article.

A. The Indefinite Article (a/an)
1. The form a is used before a word beginning with a consonant or vowel with consonant sound:
a pen  
a university
a European
a house
2. The form an is used before a word beginning with a vowel sound but not vowel letter:
an American
an egg
an hour
 or individual letters spoken with a vowel sound:
an LAPD
an SOS
an MP4

1. The use of “a/an”
a) Before a singular countable noun (there is no more than one) but you can’t use a singular countable noun alone (without a/an/the).
Maria sent a letter for her sister in New York.
I want a banana. (NOT I want banana)
There was an accident in front of my campus yesterday. (NOT there was accident in front of my campus yesterday)
b) With a noun complement. it includes the names of professions.
Adly Fairus is an actor
Kaka has ambition to be a doctor 
Susilo Bambang Yudoyono is a president

c) In exclamations before singular countable noun:
What a wonderful panorama but (NOT what wonderful panoramas)
What a beautiful girl but (NOT what beautiful girls)
 (Plural noun, so it doesn’t need an article)
d) In certain expression of quantity:
Susi Susanti has a lot of rewards as appreciation of his achievements.
The salt in the kitchen is a little
a few person of our classmates will attend the meeting tomorrow
Andrew and Melani is a couple of favorite senior high school students in Surabaya etc.
e) In expressions of price, speed, ratio etc.:
Gabriel runs about two kilometers an hour.
Sam goes to public library four times a week.
Rani buys sugar Rp. 8000,- a kilo.
 (Here a/an means per)

f) With certain number:
The audience of the music festival is a thousand people
The collections of Tono’s book are a hundred books.
 Before half when half follows whole numbers:
 1 = one and a half kilos or a kilo and a half
But kg = half a kilo (no a before half), though a + half + noun is sometimes possible:
I need a half-portion of noodle
With etc. a is usual: a third, a seventh, a quarter etc. but one is also possible one-third, one-seventh, one-quarter etc.
g) A can be placed before Mr/Mrs/Miss + surname:
a Mr Ronaldo a Mrs Ronaldo a Miss Ronaldo
a Mr Ronaldo is ‘a man called Ronaldo’ and implies that he is a stranger for the speaker. Mr Ronaldo without a means that the speaker knows the existence of Mr Ronaldo.
h) Before a singular countable noun which is used as an example of class of thing:
A girl needs attention and love = all girls need attention and love/any girl needs attention and love.
A cat likes a mouse = all cats like a mouse/any cat likes a mouse. 

2. Omission of “a/an”
 a/an is omitted:
a) Before plural nouns
a/an has no plural forms. We don’t use a/an in plural. The plural of a book is books NOT a books, the plural of an apple is apples NOT an apples.
b) Before names of meals, except when these are preceded by an adjective;
 We have breakfast in restaurant (NOT we have a breakfast in restaurant) 
We have an exciting breakfast 
c) Before uncountable nouns.
Mr. William bought a new flesh disk in Surabaya. (NOT Mr. William bought a water/sugar in the market).

B. The Definite Article (The)
1. Form
“The” is used the same for plural or singular and it is also used for all genders:
 the boy the girl the day
 the boys the girls the days

2. The use of “the”
The definite article is used:
a) Before a noun that has become definite as a result of being mentioned a second time;
Mr. Ronny’s car is parked in front of a house. The house is green
John saw a bird flying on a tree. You can still see the bird every morning.
b) Before a noun which by reason of locality can represent only one particular thing (to specialize a noun)
The book on the table is expensive.
Tom read a novel in the bedroom (Tom’s bedroom)
c) When the object or group of objects is unique or considered to be unique (the only one in the world)
The sun rises in the east.
The moon looks so beautiful tonight.
I saw the sky bright today.
d) Before a noun made definite by addition of phrase or clause
The girl whom l love is smart
The car that is parked in the garage is mine.
e) Before superlatives and first, second etc. used as adjective or pronoun and only
The first class
The best performance
The only God

3. The + singular noun can represent a class of animals or things
The komodo has become in danger of being extinct.
Some housewives like to use the deep-freeze
But man, used to represent the human race, has no article
If woman likes to get affection, man likes to keep and give attention. 
the + adjective represents a class of persons
the youth = young people in general 
the poor = the poorman in general

4. The is used before certain proper names of seas, rivers, groups of islands, chains of mountains, plural names of countries, deserts, region;
the Sahara
the Netherlands
the Atlantic
 and before certain other names;
 the City
 the Mall
 the Yemen
the is also used before names consisting of noun + of + noun;
 the United States of America
 the Bay of Biscay
the, however, is used before east, west etc when these are nouns;
the east of Java
the west of Sumatra
the south of Kalimantan
the is used before names consisting of adjective + noun (provided the adjective not east, west etc)
Arabian Music
Indonesian Food
English Book

the is used before adjective east, west etc + noun is certain names
South Pole
west Indies
east End
5. the with names of people has a very limited use. The + plural surname can be used to mean ‘the……family’;
 the Davids = Mr and Mrs David (and children)
the + singular name + clause/phrase can be used to distinguish one person from another of the same name;
There are two Mr. Williams working in this company. Which William do you want to meet? I want to meet the William who lives at Corkoatmojo street 22 Pamekasan.
the is used before titles containing of (the story of Banyuwangi) but it is not used before other titles or ranks (Captain Luca Toni), though if someone is referred to by title/rank alone the is used;
The captain ordered……
Letters written to two or more unmarried sisters jointly may be addressed the misses + surname; the misses Marry.
The is used before other proper names consisting of adjective + noun or noun + of + noun;
The Indonesian culture
The impact of technology
It is also used before names of choirs, orchestras, pop group etc.
The Ada Band
The Dewa
The Philadelphia Orchestra

6. Omission of “the”
The definite article is not used:
a. After a noun in the possessive case, or a possessive adjective;
It is my (red) pen = the (red) pen is mine. (NOT it is my the (red) pen)
The girl’s T-shirt = the T-shirt of the girl. (NOT the girl’s the T-shirt)
b. Before names of places except as shown above, or before names of people;
The Surabaya (it is false)
The Tamam (it is false)
c. Before names of meals except it’s provided by adjective;
Tono has Nasi Rames for breakfast (NOT Tono has Nasi Rames for the breakfast) but
Shinta provided the special breakfast for her mother.
d. Before abstract nouns except when they are used in particular sense;
Every policy tends to appear negative impact.
The government should obey the policy of democracy  
e. Before names of games 
She plays volleyball (NOT she plays the volleyball)
f. Before parts of the body and articles of clothing, as these normally prefer a possessive adjective;
Anybody has question, please rise your right hand! (NOT the right hand)
He took off his coat.

But notice that sentence of the type;
Jennifer sized Jane’s collar
She patted her shoulder
The brick hit James’ face
Could be expressed;
Jennifer sized Jane by the collar
She patted her on the shoulder
The brick hit James in the face
Similarly in the passive
Ballack was cut in the hand.
The can be omitted when speaking of the subject’s or speaker’s own town;
Cristiano Ronaldo went to town sometimes to go shopping.
We were in town Last Sunday.













At this table the writers provided the table of the use of “the”
WITH “THE” WITHOUT “THE”
a. Mountains
the Rocky mountains, the Andes
b. Earth, moon
the earth, the moon
c. Countries with more than one word (except world war)
the United States
d. Ordinal numbers before nouns
the First World War, the second chapter
e. oceans, rivers, seas, gulfs, plural lakes
the Pacific Ocean, the Persian Gulf, the Great Lakes
f. Schools, colleges, universities when phrase begins with school, etc.
University of Florida, the College of arts and sciences
g. Wars (except world war)
The Korean war, the Diponegoro war

h. Ethnic groups
the Indians, the Javanese
i. Historical documents
the Magna Carta, the Piagam Jakarta
 a. Mounts
mount Himalaya, mount Semeru
b. Planets, constellations
Mars, Jupiter, Venus
c. Countries with one word

Canada, Indonesia, China, France
d. Cardinal numbers after nouns

World War One, chapter four

e. Singular lake

Lake Erie, Lake Toba

f. Schools, colleges, universities when phrase begins with proper noun
Cambridge University










g. Continents
Africa, America, Australia, Asia
h. Holidays
Christmas, Idul Fitri, Idul Adha
i. Sports
Basketball, volleyball, football
j. General areas of subject matter
Biology, mathematics, chemistry
k. Abstract nouns
Freedom, happiness, independence











BIBLIOGRAPHY

Swan, Michael. Practical English Usage. New York: Oxford University Press. 1995
Frank, Marcella. Modern English. New Jersey: New York University. 1972
Pyle, Michael A & Mary Ellan Munoz. Cliffs TOEFL. Singapore: John Wiley & Sons. 1991
Murphy, Raymond. English Grammar in Use. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. 1998
Habibullah, Mosleh. English Grammar Exercise. STAIN Pamekasan Press. 2006
Thomson, A. J & A. V. Martinet. A Practical English Grammar. New York: Oxford University Press. 1986

INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS

Semantics is branch of linguistics that referred to the study of meaning. Study semantics concerned to the level of word, phrases and sentence meaning. But do you know what the meaning is? Meaning is a complex phenomenon that expresses the relationship between a language and the minds of its speaker, between language and the world, and between language and practical uses which it is put. 
The first description of studying semantic is about meaning. What is meaning?
1. Dictionary definitions; although so many people think that the practical way to know the meaning of words is from dictionary but actually meaning is provided by a community of native speakers. Since the different dictionary would give different explanation of the same word.
2. Mental images; since not all languages have corresponding mental images, and mental images tend to only of typical of the thing they symbolize so the meaning of an expression is not just a mental images. In giving definition of a teacher is sometimes different of every native speaker.
3. Meaning and truth; explaining of the meaning of can be done in part by explaining its truth conditions.
4. Meaning and language use; one of the important aspect of meaning is condition on language use, knowing the meaning of an utterance is also knowing how to use it.
In semantics we will also learn about Meaning Relationship; in this case are:
1. Antonymy are the words in the some sense opposite in meaning. Lucky-unlucky, like-dislike, possible-impossible etc.
2. Synonymy are two different forms with the same meaning like sofa and couch or cease and stop.
3. Homonymy are two different meaning with the same form. Such as sea and see or night and knight.
4. Entailment is the relationship between the general meaning and specific meaning. When it is a cat it must be an animal but when it is an animal it must not be a cat.


Other descriptions of Meaning Relationship are:
1. Semantic Features
The example; the book read the boy. This sentence is syntactically right, but semantically odd. The subject book must denote entities that are capable of ‘reading’ but the noun book doesn’t have this property.
2. Lexical Relations
Lexical relations are the analysis of treating the procedure of semantic description. One of the types of lexical relations is synonym, example bad-good, beautiful-ugly, keep-damage etc.
3. Deictic Expressions 
Deictic expressions are the means of ‘pointing’ with language that can be interpreted in terms of location that the speaker intends to indicate such as here, there, this, that, tomorrow etc.
4. Presuppositions
A presupposition is the descriptions that what a speaker assumes is true or is known by the hearer. The example, if you asked why do you cry? There is a presupposition that you do cry.
In the next chapter about semantics explain about Semantic Composition, these are:
1. Structural ambiguity; this explanation has been described in previous chapter that is in syntax. It means that some sentences sometimes have different meaning.
2. Relative intersection; the combination of words is relative, depends on whether that combination is match or not. Example tall cat of course it is not matched.

INTRODUCTION TO PHONOLOGY (PHONEMICS)

A. The Definition of Phonemics
As I’ve ever explained before that phonology has two fields. One of them is phonetics that has explained in latest chapter. The second one of the field is phonemics. Phonemics is the study of the sounds as a system (how they contrast one another and ways they can combine one another in language).
B. The Difference between Phoneme and Allophones.
Phoneme is a contrastive sound unit in a language; it is contrastive because it distinguishes meanings when exchanged for other phonemes in the language. It can also be said that phoneme is the smallest significant unit of language. For example, the contrast between /p/ and /d/ is established in pin-din or /s/ and /∫/ that is established in sin-shin. Allophones are variants of phoneme, and are in complementary distribution. For example in English is /l/ phoneme. /l/ has two variants: a “dark” /l/ occurs all other consonants and finally, for example field, felt, little. While clear /l/ occurs only before vowels and before /j/ for example love, light, million [miljən].
C. The segmental sounds of English
1 The English Consonant
There are about twenty-four in number of English consonants. They are /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/, /f/, /v/, /ø/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /∫/, /З/, /r/, /h/, /t∫/, /dЗ/, /w/, /j/, /ŋ/, /m/, /n/. I will only describe one of them. The example is /p/ that has two variants; they are [p] (voiceless, inspirited bilabial stop). It occurs in complementary distribution with [ph] (voiceless, aspirated bilabial stop), the letter appearing only before a vowel in the beginning of stressed syllables and released in word final position. The example of [p] “supper” /sΛpər/, and [ph] “pipe” /phaiph/.
2 The English vowels
There are fourteen in number of English vowels. I will describe one of them. They are /i:/, /i/, /ei/, /e/, /З/, /ə/, /æ/, /Λ/, /a/, /u:/, /əu/, /Ο/, /З/. I will give one description. The example is /i:/ and the allophones is [i:] (high close front unrounded). It occurs in all positions. “eat” /i:t/ [i:t] or “bee” /bi:/ [bi:].

3 Consonant clusters
A consonant cluster is s combination of two or more consonant. The examples:
Initial clusters:
/pr/ prove /bl/ blame /dr/ drink /ør/ through 
/skw/ square /skr/ scratch /str/ street /spr/ spring
Medial clusters:
/sk/ asking /mpl/ complete /nst/ constant /nstr/ construct
Final clusters:
/kt/ fact /mpts/ attempts /mps/ camps
D. Supra-segmental Sounds of English
1 Stress
Stress is the force of breath with which sounds are produced. Some linguist explained that stress that there are only three phonemic word stress level in English;
Primary stress – symbol: / /, 
Secondary stress – symbol: / /
Weak stress – symbol: / /
For example; man, academic, market.
2 Intonation
Intonation means the changes in the pitch of the voice while producing speech. Every utterance is produced with some intonation and pitch. 

Bibliography
Nasr, Raja T, The Essential of Linguistic Science, Longman House, Harlow, London, England, 1984.
Lyons, John, Language a Linguistic and Introduction, Cambridge University, New York, 1984.
Boey, Lim Kiat, Introduction to Linguistics for Language Teacher, Singapore University Press, Singapore, 1975.

  IMAM SYAFI’I
  NIM. 180 713 199