FUNDAMENTAL OF ENGLISH SYNTAX

PAPER

Proposed to fulfil the assignment of Second Language Acquisition
Recomenned by Mrs. Kristanti Ayu Anita , M. Pd




Arranged by:
IMAM SYAFII
HERLINA FAIZAH
HELLIYATUL MUKARROMAH
HODAIFAH
JEFTIYATUR ROHANIYAH





















STATE ISLAMIC COLLEGE OF PAMEKASAN
ENGLISH TEACHING DEPARTMENT
OCTOBER 2009

Fundamental of English Syntax

A. BACKGROUND
This is a brief introduction to syntax, the study of the structure of sentences. It is designed for use as part of an introductory course in general English linguistics, and as such must be selective. The literature references give more detailed introductions to syntax, which students must consult if they are to understand the literature in journals or do syntactic research themselves.
Linguistics, like all other sciences, is constantly making new discoveries and many issues in linguistics are subject to debate. Doing justice to all the important recent discoveries and to all the approaches which have been suggested for the phenomena we discuss is impossible here. The text concentrates on basic concepts which will give students an idea of what syntax is about, but at the same time aspires to a broad introduction to syntactic phenomena and argumentation which will be of use whether or not the readers pursue further study in syntax.

B. ENGLISH SYNTAX
1. Introductory Concepts
1.1. Syntactic categories
It is assumed that you have some familiarity with what in traditional grammar were called the parts of speech. Such notions are now covered by the term categories or syntactic categories.
(1)
Category Abbreviation Example
a. noun N John, London, computer, city, stupidity, event
b. verb V hear, think, kill, shorten, eavesdrop, exist
c. adjective A good, obscene, demented, lovely, schoolmasterly
d. preposition P by, in, with, from, to, at, inside, despite
e. adverb Adv slowly, often, now, mostly
f. determiner D (or Det) a, the, this, those
It is worthwhile learning the abbreviations for the categories, as they are used in other works.
Let us briefly examine some of the criteria which are used in determining the category a word belongs to. We will not try to give a full list of completely failsafe criteria here; we will simply indicate the types of criteria which are considered more reliable by syntacticians. One less reliable type of criterion for categories which you may already have encountered is semantic, i.e. based on meaning. Thus, you may have been told in school that a noun denotes a person, place or thing, that a verb denotes an activity or state and that an adjective denotes a property. Unfortunately, such semantic generalizations are tendencies, not absolute rules. Thus, there are nouns which denote activities (the hammering), events (recital), states (drunkenness) and properties (silliness).
More reliable evidence for determining the category of a word come from morphological and distributional criteria. Examples of morphological criteria would be that nouns, but no other category, can take a plural affix (tables, intervals, oxen) and that most verbs change their morphological form according to the requirements of tense and agreement (I sing, she sings, I sang; I talk, she talks, I talked). If you can add -ly to a word to form an adverb, you know that word is an adjective (slow>slowly). Examples of distributional criteria for various categories are given below. In each case, assume that the gap in the sentence is to be filled by a single word.
(2)
a. They have no []N
b. the []A []N
c. She did so []Adv
d. very []A/Adv
e. They can []V
1.2. Constituent structure
Identifying the syntactic category of each word in a sentence is only the beginning of syntactic analysis. Consider the simple sentence below:
(3)
That man likes that woman
In analyzing sentence (3), we might propose the following rule:

(4)
S →D+N+V+D+N
(Translation: A sentence can consist of the sequence determiner + noun + verb + determiner + noun.)
It is easy to show that a rule like (4) is a completely uninformative way of describing a sentence. Suppose we want to give more information about the man spoken of in (3) and/or to say that he likes someone or something other than that woman. We could then replace that man and that women with different, more complex expressions. A small selection of the infinite number of possible replacements is given in (5) and (6).
(5)
a. that old man
b. that old man with the bottle of beer
c. that extremely old and decrepit man with a nearly empty bottle of cheap beer
d. that man over there near the window
e. that extremely old and decrepit man over there with a nearly empty bottle of cheap beer
(6)
a. heavy metal music from the Seventies
b. people with a flair for the unusual
c. paintings by certain fairly weird and decadent artists
d. the lady over there beside the fireplace
e. his collection of photographs of Victorian guesthouses in Tasmania
The possibility of replacing that man in (3) with any expression in (5) and that woman in (3) with any expression in (6) gives us twenty-five sentences. If we wish to be able to describe what happens using rules like that in (4), we would require twenty-five different rules. Once we start adding further material to the sentence (say, very much just before likes and/or obviously at the beginning of the sentence), the number of rules of the type in (4) begins to multiply. We rapidly come to the conclusion that the number of rules of the type in (4) required to describe possible English sentences would be infinite. There is no way a child could learn such rules. Also, such rules are purely descriptive, by which is meant that they just state empirical facts without giving any explanation for them. Also, they do not tell us anything about how the words relate to each other.
A way out of this impasse emerges when we realize that what has hitherto been lacking in our analysis of sentences has been the idea that words can combine with other words to form larger groups of words which belong together. In technical parlance, such groups of words are called constituents. Constituents combine with other constituents to form yet larger constituents, until we eventually have the largest type of constituent studied in syntax, the sentence. The expressions listed in (5) and (6) were examples of constituents called 'noun phrases' (NPs), expressions which include a noun and some additional material giving additional information about it. NPs can typically be replaced by pronouns: each NP in (5) and (6) can be replaced by he, her, it, them etc. as appropriate. We will give a better definition of NPs and other types of constituents later. Our purpose now is merely to show how establishing constituent structure greatly helps us in analyzing sentences. Consider (7), which will be rejected later and should not be memorized, but is far better than (4):
(7)
S → NP V NP (Translation: A sentence can consist of the sequence NP+V+NP.)
Even if we are only interested in describing the twenty-five possible sentences consisting of a NP from (5), a verb and a NP from (6), the benefits of recognizing constituent structure should now be apparent. If we use rules of the type in (4), we would require twenty-five rules to describe these sentences, whereas (7) describes all twenty-five sentences with just one rule. It should be emphasized again that the rule in (7) is being used only as a way of showing the need for constituent structure. We will later show how this rule can be improved upon. As another, more interesting argument for the need for constituent structure, consider the following sentences containing the possessive s morpheme:
(8)
a. [That lady]'s husband left.
b. [That lady over there]'s husband left. (=the husband of that lady over there...)
c. [That lady near the door]'s husband left. (=the husband of that lady near the door...)
d. [That lady you talked to]'s husband left. (=the husband of that lady you talked to...)
e. [That lady you saw]'s husband left. (=the husband of that lady you saw...)
Notice that we cannot describe the behavior of the possessive 's in terms of the category of the words it attaches to: 's can appear immediately to the right of a word of any category.
Notice also that 's does not necessarily say that the word it appears to the right of is the possessor. (For instance, the door in (8) (c) probably does not have a husband.) Rather, the correct generalization is that possessive 's attaches to a particular type of constituent (marked by square brackets in (8)), namely a NP. Without knowing what a NP is, there is simply no way to describe the behaviour of possessive 's. Thus, we cannot describe sentence structure without recourse to constituents.
1.3. Tests for constituents
In all sciences, linguistics included, one should be able to assess the truth or falsehood of a claim by means of objective tests. We now introduce some tests for establishing whether a string (i.e. group of words) is a constituent or not.
a) Pro-form test.
Pro-forms are expressions like she, them, somewhere, do so, there which have the function of representing a constituent which has already been mentioned, so that one need not go to the effort of pronouncing/writing the constituent twice. The best-known type of pro-form is a so-called pronoun, which replaces a NP, e.g. she/him/they. If you can replace a string with a pro-form, the string is a constituent. (9) illustrates the use of the pro-form test in finding constituents in (9)(a).
(9)
a. The lady running the group handed in her resignation on Friday at noon.
b. She handed in her resignation on Friday at noon. [Thus, The lady running the group is a constituent]
c. The lady running it handed in her resignation on Friday at noon. [Thus, the group is a constituent]
d. The lady running the group did so on Friday at noon. [Thus, handed in her resignation is a constituent]
e. The lady running the group handed in her resignation then. [Thus, on Friday at noon is a constituent]
b) Question test.
If you can convert a sentence into a question using a wh-expression (e.g. where/how/when/why/what/who(m), and phrases like with whom?, at what time?, in whose house?), the string that the wh-expression replaces is a constituent. (Wh-expressions are pro-forms.) The answer to the question is also a constituent. (10) illustrates this with reference to (9)(a). In each case, A and B refer to different speakers. B's answer is a constituent.
(10)
a. A: What did the lady running the group hand in on Friday at noon?
B: Her resignation.
b. A: Who handed in her resignation on Friday at noon?
B: The lady running the group
c. A: When did the lady running the group hand in her resignation?
B: On Friday at noon
c) Movement test.
If a string can be moved to some other position in the sentence, you know
it is very likely to be a constituent. The following examples apply this test to identify constituents in the respective (a) sentences.
(11)
a. Egbert was reading a thick book about formal logic on the balcony on Sunday.
b. On Sunday, Egbert was reading a thick book about formal logic on the balcony.
c. On the balcony, Egbert was reading a thick book about formal logic on Sunday.
d. Egbert was reading on the balcony on Sunday a thick book about formal logic.
(12)
a. Rover ran out of the house.
b. Out of the house Rover ran.
(13)
a. Ann is not a fan of mindless techno music.
b. A fan of mindless techno music, Ann is not.
(14)
a. Gertrude wasn't interested in art.
b. Interested in art, Gertrude wasn't.
(15)
a. Hortense didn't win the race.
b. Win the race, Hortense didn't.
d) Coordination test.
Coordination is the operation of joining two words or phrases together using conjunctions, e.g. and and or. Strings joined by conjunctions must each be a constituent. (They must be constituents of the same type, a fact which will be important to us later.) Suppose you are trying to test whether the underlined strings in (16)(a) and (17)(a) are constituents. Try to find another expression which you can coordinate with the underlined string. You can be confident that the string is a constituent if you can place the other expression with which it is coordinated either before or after it without any difference in meaning, as in (16)(b,c) and (17)(b,c).
(16)
a. I went to the post office to post a letter.
b. I went to the post office to post a letter and did the shopping.
c. I did the shopping and went to the post office to post a letter.
(17)
a. She spoke to a small number of the students interested in the subject.
b. She spoke to a small number of the students interested in the subject and the staff.
c. She spoke to the staff and a small number of the students interested in the subject.



1.4. Phrasal categories and the notion of 'head'
Just like words, constituents larger than words have a category. We distinguish word-level categories (categories which are at the same level as a word, i.e. N, V, A, P, etc.) and phrasal categories or simply phrases (constituents larger than a word). Examples of the latter which were already mentioned are NP and S. There are a number of other types of phrases which you need to know about. The first thing to note is that each word-level category has a corresponding phrasal category, which contains the word-level category itself and any material which -in a manner to be made more precise later- adds additional information to it or is dependent on it. In (24)-(28) are examples of the phrasal categories we will be concentrating on in this text. Do not worry if you do not yet understand why the expressions in (24)-(28) are seen as instances of the respective categories. This set of problems is taken up shortly.
(18)
Noun Phrase (NP)
a. the woman; a (big) tree; (this) coffee, (our) existence
b. a (renowned) expert (on indigenous Australian music) (from Brisbane)
c. a (Russian) pianist (of exceptional talent) (who had world-wide critical acclaim)
d. the (most important) representatives (of workers' interests) (at the conference)
e. a documentary (by a French journalist) (about Spain)
(19)
Verb Phrase (VP)
a. (suddenly) die (of cancer) (at a young age)
b. (blindly) rely on the advice of a counselor
c. (often) called him a maladjusted sociopath
d. give Basil the book
e. read (a book)
(20)
Adjective Phrase (AP)
a. (very) angry (at the rest of the human race)
b. (completely and utterly) disappointed (at the ineptitude of German Telecom)
c. interested (in the history of Postmodernist theatre) (to some extent)
d. dull (to the extreme) e. (soul-destroyingly) boring f. devoid of content
(21)
Prepositional Phrase (PP)
a. (right) near the fireplace
b. towards the entrance to the building
c. (wholly) inside (the enclosure)
d. out (of the house)
e. despite the failed attempt of the paramilitary at blowing up the Institute of Syntax
(22)
Adverb Phrase (AdvP)
a. (very) slowly
b. (extremely) well
c. (completely) independently of the approval of his superiors
The underlined elements in the phrases above are the elements around which the respective phrases are built. They are said to be the heads of the respective phrases. (Alternative ways of saying this are, taking NP as an example, that N heads or projects NP, or that NP is a projection of N or is headed by N.) THE HEAD OF A PHRASE IS THE ELEMENT WHICH DETERMINES THE PROPERTIES OF THE WHOLE PHRASE. All elements in a phrase other than the head are dependent on the head, in that they either give additional information about the head, or are included in the phrase because the head requires that they be there. The head is obligatory, in the sense that if you leave out the head of a phrase, the rest of the phrase must be left out too. You can confirm this by forming a sentence containing any of the phrases in (24)-(28), but omitting the head of that phrase. The resulting sentence will almost certainly not be a possible English sentence.
Note that the notion of 'head' also applies to word structure. Inside words, the head is the element which determines the properties of the whole word. For instance, we say that eat is the head of overeat because the whole word has the same category as eat (i.e. it is a verb) and is inflected in the same way as eat (cf. ate/eaten and overate/overeaten).
A difference between morphological and syntactic heads is that, in English, the head of a word is usually the right-hand element, while the head of a phrase is often not the right-hand element.

C. CONCLUSION
Learning English syntax is sometimes complicated. Therefore it will take long time for English learners who want to understand deeply about English syntax. It takes more reference and it also emphasized the learning in reading even comprehending the matters is the process of understanding English syntax
This paper is not enough to be reference to understand about English syntax but it will be very useful for you who begin to learn English syntax. Based on this paper, there some brief explanation about:
a) Syntactic categories
b) Constituent structure
c) Tests for constituent
d) Phrasal categories and the notion of “head”
Those four concepts have been explained clearly by the writers. The writers do hope this paper will be very significant material for the writers themselves especially for the learners who are in the process of learning English syntax.

D. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Nasar, Raja T, The Essential of Linguistic Science, Longman House, Harlow, London, England, 1984.
Lyons, John, Language a Linguistic and Introduction, Cambridge University, New York, 1984.
Yule, George, The Study of Language an Introduction, Britanian: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
Jannedy, Stefanie cs, Language Files, Columbus: Ohio State University, 1994.

READING ASSIGNMENT 2

MOTIVATING STUDENTS TO BECOME INDEPENDENT LEARNERS

Teacher should be a busy ma in term of providing valuable clues about how a child learns and to enable each child to learn in the way that suits them best. Formal examinations are often a key part of this process and for many national plus and international schools in Indonesia.
However, the challenge for schools, particularly those that offer a combination of Indonesian national curriculum and international programs, is not only to guide and motivate students to be successful in these various examinations but to inspire them to become independent learners who love learning for its own sake.
While the process toward independent learning begins during the earliest years of childhood, independence becomes especially significant as students rise to meet the challenges of the secondary phase of their school education.
When we consider the school world as a fundamental of the real world with all its opportunities and challenges, it becomes clear that children must be equipped with a range of skills that not only enable them to do their best in formal examinations at school but also to do their best academically, socially and emotionally, in college, university or whatever their chosen career or life path beyond school may be.
When teachers provide a caring, stimulating and challenging learning environment, encourage curiosity and creativity while enabling students to recognize both their strengths and weaknesses, giving them confidence to undertake new challenges, motivation will be achieved by, of course, support from their parents.
In short, the student's motivation to learn is connected to three life goals. The first of these is "personal maturity", which is supported by a school's commitment to character building. The second is, "Loving relationships and family", which is cultivated by facilitation of parental involvement in a school's academic objectives. The third life goal is "contribution to society"; this is modeled by community service activities and creative school projects in conjunction with business, government, and the media and community agencies.

READING ASSIGNMENT 2

READING ASSIGNMENT

Creating qualified generation through education

There is no denying that a major problem of educational development in Indonesia and, perhaps, the most of the developing countries, lies in human resources. Lack of entire awareness of the important role of education cause the difficulty in solving many problems happened in this country. There must be the change of mindset for everybody who wants to make Indonesia better. Education is the significant way in increasing the qualification of human resource in Indonesia. It also influenced by the seriousness of government in manufacturing educational institutions.
As humans are the major causes of educational decrease, which are commonly caused by poverty, the role of government, decreasing educational awareness among the public must be conducted in a continuous and consistent manner. Give the high attention of educational increase in Indonesia and the growing global awareness of Indonesian citizens by the proof successful result of educational process.
For elementary students, for instance, a variety of up-to-date activities and teaching strategies should be designed to engage children in learning the fundamentals of the importance of education in the 21st century. These may include strategies for adapting many curriculums that are appropriately acceptable. It emphasizes the existence of educational department that becomes the main controller of educational development.
Government should give proof of the importance of education by means of creating successful products of education itself. It means that the students who studied in the school can get any kinds of job after they had passed from educational institution. Unfortunately, it has not been proved yet because of some problems found by government. The lack of facility and the attention of educational institution such for the teachers, students and the institutions cause unserious process of education.
Government should give big chance for every citizen to feel what education is. It is proved by free education for elementary and junior high school students. Beside that, government should provide the aid for smart but poor students to continue their study.
The writer believes that the awareness of Indonesian citizens will rise when government can give proof. Therefore, government should provide job vacancies for the graduation of any educational institution.

Demonstration at STAIN;
Is it democracy?

*Mr. PL (peace lover)
Shavie140188.blogspot.com

It was about 8.30 am on Wednesday. The teaching learning process at campus of STAIN Pamekasan run commonly. In a few minute, the lecturers and the students suddenly surprised when some students gathered. The students, who called on the name of United College Student Community (KMB), demonstrated in the yard of campus. It began from the east building of campus. While showing the poster, the demonstrators prosecuted the chairperson of STAIN, Dr. Idri, M.Ag, to stop from his occupation. They argued that he violated his vision and mission to make STAIN better. They also claimed that he wasn’t responsible for his occupation and couldn’t be a good pattern since he still became the lecture at IAIN Sunan Ampel Surabaya.
The situation became chaotically uncontrolled when the demonstrators asked all students to join the demonstration as supporter of their action. Unfortunately, it did not run well since nobody responded it. The students still stayed at classroom. It, of course, made the demonstrators on fire. As result, they threw some firecracker (petasan) at campus. Constantly, it made the teaching learning process at class uncontrolled. Many fresh students were panic and scared. Moreover, two students were fainted because of being surprised.
The action continued to be in front of center office of STAIN. The demonstrators were waiting the chairperson of STAIN, Mr. Idri. They wanted to get clear clarification from him. The demonstrator prosecuted in order that Mr. Idri approved the seven requests from demonstrator; one of those is the choice to stay in Pamekasan more and manage STAIN well or left his position to be the chairperson of STAIN if he could not focus on.

The demonstration met support and criticism
The event at STAIN, the demonstration above, got reaction from several circles. The reaction came from the intern and extern campus of STAIN Pamekasan. Those reflected that they cared of STAIN and paid attention for the development of democracy in educational institution.
The first reaction came from the intern campus of STAIN. The reaction was controversial, either support or criticism. The supporting circle of the action claimed that it became the learning of democracy for college student even for the sake of the successful manufacturing of STAIN itself; whereas the rejecting one argued that was educating way in responding the problem at campus. The criticism came from the fact that happened in delivering aspiration through demonstration at that time was brutal. It caused a lot of chaos and disturbed the teaching learning process at campus.
The second reaction came from extern campus, exactly from society around STAIN that got info from some mass media. It was also controversial and had the same reason as delivered by college students of STAIN. However, how could the writer know? It was not so surprising since today is transparent era. Everyone has right to respond any problem by good way. One of those ways is responding the problem of society through mass media such television, newspaper even radio. The comment was varying. Some of them rejected the action not because of the intention but because of inappropriate way. Other supported it since they argued that irresponsible leader couldn’t be defended. Demonstration at STAIN was questionable; is it a democracy? Is it appropriate way in delivering the aspiration? Therefore, we should understand the concept of democracy.

What is democracy?
Democracy, which derives from the Greek word "demos," or "people," is defined, basically, as government in which the supreme power is vested in the people. In some forms, democracy can be exercised directly by the people; in large societies, it is by the people through their elected agents. Alternatively, in the memorable phrase of President Abraham Lincoln, democracy is government "of the people, by the people, and for the people."
Freedom and democracy are often used interchangeably, but the two are not synonymous. Democracy is indeed a set of ideas and principles about freedom, but it also consists of practices and procedures that have been molded through a long, often tortuous history. Democracy is the institutionalization of freedom.
Democracy consists of four basic elements:
I want to begin with an overview of what democracy is. We can think of democracy as a system of government with four key elements:

1. A political system for choosing and replacing the government through free and fair elections.
2. The active participation of the people, as citizens, in politics and civic life.

3. Protection of the human rights of all citizens.
4. A rule of law, in which the laws and procedures apply equally to all citizens.

I. Democracy as a Political System of Competition for Power
Democracy is a means for the people to choose their leaders and to hold their leaders accountable for their policies and their conduct in office.

II. Participation: The Role of the Citizen in a Democracy
The key role of citizens in a democracy is to participate in public life. Citizens have an obligation to become informed about public issues, to watch carefully how their political leaders and representatives use their powers, and to express their own opinions and interests.

III. The Rights of Citizens in a Democracy
In a democracy, every citizen has certain basic rights that the state cannot take away from them. These rights are guaranteed under international law. You have the right to have your own beliefs, and to say and write what you think. No one can tell you what you must think, believe, and say or not say. There is freedom of religion. Everyone is free to choose their own religion and to worship and practice their religion as they see fit.

IV. The Rule of Law
Here is the significant part of democracy. Democracy is a system of rule by laws, not by individuals. In a democracy, the rule of law protects the rights of citizens, maintains order, and limits the power of government. All citizens are equal under the law. No one may be discriminated against on the basis of their race, religion, ethnic group, or gender. No one may be arrested, imprisoned, or exiled arbitrarily.

V. The Limits and Requirements for Democracy
If democracy is to work, citizens must not only participate and exercise their rights. They must also observe certain principles and rules of democratic conduct. People must respect the law and reject violence. Nothing ever justifies using violence against your political opponents, just because you disagree with them. Every citizen must respect the rights of his or her fellow citizens, and their dignity as human beings. No one should denounce a political opponent as evil and illegitimate, just because they have different views.

Based on those statements we can get the conclusion. The conclusion is that everyone has right to express the idea; however, it is limited by regulation arranged by government as fundamental of law. Those aspects are also implemented in many institutions even organizations. Everyone should supreme those aspects in democracy.

Is demonstration part of democracy?
This question appeared related to the event happened at STAIN. When the readers have got the regularly chronological incident at STAIN; the writer then invited the readers to comprehend the concept and elements of democracy. Now, is the incident part of democracy? Have the incident fulfilled the elements and requirements to be political learning for college students? Based on the completely clear explanation; demonstration is part of democracy since it is an alternative in delivering our ideas, response and problem. However, demonstration should not be brutal. We must respect one another in order not to make the situation become worse.
Delivering aspiration through demonstration should be based on regulation. According to legislation no.9 in 1998, demonstrator should obey regulations:
 Respect freedom and right other people.
 Respect applied regulation in the society.
 Obey law and regulation of legislation.
 Keep and respect safety and public order
 Keep the unity of nation
Islam also has advice in term of delivering our aspiration for other people especially for our government. Prophet Muhammad s.a.w said “Religion is an advice”; then the followers asked “for whom? He answered “For Allah, Messenger, the leaders and uneducated ones (HR. Muslim no.55). our religion ordered us to give advice. However, we should deliver it by using good way. Prophet Muhammad s.a.w said “Barangsiapa yang hendak menasihati pemerintah dengan suatu perkara maka janganlah ia tampakkan di khalayak ramai. Akan tetapi hendaklah ia mengambil tangan penguasa (raja) dengan empat mata. Jika ia menerima maka itu (yang diinginkan) dan kalau tidak, maka sungguh ia telah menyampaikan nasihat kepadanya. Dosa bagi dia dan pahala baginya (orang yang menasihati)”
(Shahih, riwayat Ahmad, Al Haitsami dan Ibnu Abi Ashim)

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

When we are beginning to discuss about curriculum we should comprehend the term of “curriculum” itself. Everyone even the scientists in education surely have different view in giving meaning of curriculum. The most important things in discussing curriculum are the differences between old and new side of curriculum. Based on old side, curriculum is some subjects that must be passed by the learners to get certificate. According to Romine curriculum is the way how we organized courses and activities for learners either in classroom or not. The main purpose of organizing curriculum is to determine an appropriate syllabus, course, teaching methods and materials; in order that the teachers can carry out an evaluation that is based on the process of learning.

The curriculum development process should reflect needs analyses and ideologies about language, language teaching and language learning. The process of organizing curriculum is not limited by classroom activity but it can also be done in out of classroom suited by the aim what we are going to reached. Because of the large meaning of curriculum, so that every teacher is expected to more creative in creating the variation of teaching learning process. The teacher should be creative in making the enjoy learning and make the learners more active.

Our today’s discussion is specified in curriculum development in educational system in Indonesia. Based on the history of appearing our educational curriculum, it is clear that our curriculum is influenced by the system created by colonial government. Therefore it caused some differences between old curriculum and modern curriculum. Those are:

 The concept of teaching tends to the old experience got by the teacher, so that the process of teaching is same as the process of teaching that got by the teacher from their former teachers. Whereas modern curriculum is oriented to the today’s topic that is needed by the learners in the future.
 The lack of understanding of the teacher about the philosophy of education. Every teacher has different interpretation of learning. The modern curriculum tends to be more flexible that focuses on real daily activity.
 The ambiguities of the purpose of education that tend to the development in knowledge and skill but it forget the essential thing of the purpose of education that changes the performance by experience. So the development of behavior, ambition and habit are neglected. The purpose is not only to get certificate but also to explore all potentials of the learners.
 Old curriculum tends to teach the learners subject but those didn’t teach me how change their behavior by understanding the subjects and experience they get from the subject. Therefore curriculum should be organized widely in all kinds of subject.
 The old curriculum point out based on lesson book that sometimes inappropriate anymore in today’s need. So the teacher should have an evaluation all the materials in curriculum in order to be more suitable with the learners’ need that related to the problems happen around us.

Besides some differences in old and modern curriculum, it is significant to discuss also about the role of curriculum such as in conservative, evaluative and creative role of the curriculum. The curriculum besides has some roles, it also some function that become reference for the teachers to organized the curriculum. Those functions are various, one of the function is the propaedeutic function. This is purposed in order that the teachers have preparation before they are going to teach the learners.

Pamekasan, October 14, 2009
Written by,


IMAM SYAFII
NIM 180713199

Class A student of English Teaching Department of STAIN Pamekasan

visiting access Malang

On September 27, 2009 some members of English Club of Pamekasan Youth (ECPY), Madura East Java held a comparative study with an English Course, ACCESS is called, in Malang. There were about 18 members. We went there at 11 pm in the night. So, all members of this program had a rest in the travel to Malang.
We arrived in Malang at 7 am on the next day but before going to our destination, we stop at restaurant to have breakfast. We arrived in ACCESS at 8.30 am. The instructors and staff welcomed us very well. There were five instructors and they all are native. It was very interesting and attractive since we seldom meet native and practice our English skill. The instructors and staff were very communicative. They fulfill our activity by holding an interesting conversation and some games. The members of English Club of Pamekasan Youth were very impressive. They listened to instructors enthusiastically. Unfortunately, we were there only 3 hours.
We continued our travel to visit a popular bookstore in Malang. All of members of ECPY hunted many books especially English books. Then we continued to visit a mall and traditional market to buy some souvenirs and parcel.
You can see this picture. Here is the activity in the class when one of the instructors of ACCESS had a game. It was very wonderful activity. All of members of ECPY are interested in visiting ACCESS again.
We do hope that we can visit IALF in Surabaya for next program. Therefore, we need KGI to facilitate us in performing this program. We also expect to get any information how to visit IALF in Surabaya via our email address (peacelover63@yahoo.com). Moreover, it will be more pleasure for us if KGI can facilitate us to visit IALF Bali. KGI is our inspiration. Good luck for KGI staff.

PAPER
WORK VALUES
Proposed to fulfill the assignment of Cross Cultural Understanding Class
Approved by Mr. Mulyadi, SS. M.Pd








Arranged by:
Rusmiati
Mamlu’ah
Zainollah
Khodaifah
Imam syafii
Miftahul arifin
Afidatul asfiyak
Nurul qomariyah
Mohammad siddik
Dinar vincy yunitaka b



STATE ISLAMIC COLLEGE OF PAMEKASAN
ENGLISH TEACHING DEPARTMENT
November 2009
CHAPTER I

A. Introduction
Work value is commonly meant as attitude, view, orientation or measurement which is determined in the human being. The term of work values could be different either in America or Madura. There are some fundamentals that become orientation even viewpoint of American. There will also be some differences and same term in American and Madurese work values. Those will be clearly discussed in the next chapter. American is well known in the term of American dream that became jargon. The readers will also know about the term of workaholics in America that may not be found in Madura.

Many Madurese work values are reflected and motivated by the values contained in the proverbs which live by generation from their ancestors. Prof. Mien A Rifai in national seminar of Madurese language said “it is about 2000 Madurese proverbs indicate their work values. Madurese is not afraid to die but afraid to get starvation (oreng madureh ta’ tako’ mateh, tapeh tako’ kalaparan). It indicates a submission of Madurese toward death because it is his initiative. On the other hand, it indicate that Madurese is afraid to get starve since starvation is caused by their own act. In which, they are not diligent and work hard so make them shy. Therefore, Madurese work whatever is and how heavy it is. If it doesn’t break the religion values, Madurese will not consider the work as a hard thing, profitless or contemptible. As long as it is not an immoral, the work is allowed. Some of Madurese characteristics which are impressed to the foreigners are about diligence, seriousness and will do work (de Jonge 1995).

B. The Problem of Discussion
What are the terms used in work values in America and Madura?
What are the distinctive terms used in America and Madura?

CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION


A. Bharenteng: Very Diligent

There are many proverbs that indicate diligence and seriousness to work of Madurese. Some of them are bhajeng (diligent), bharenteng (energetic), cakang (adroit), parekas (initiative) and tangghinas (act fast).
Madurese is capable worker (pelak) he can focus his mind to face the world (ce’ ngadhebba da’ lalakonna), know well the work (papa da’ pangghabayyanna) and never stop the work (tada’ emballa sabbhan are akobu’) with this value, Madurese seems to work continuously till it is finished.
American are capable worker since they seek the work trough Work School but they are not capable if have not Work School.
Beyond their capability in work, American is not as diligent as Madurese since Madurese work on their own initiative and American is in contrast, they work under the principle instruction.
Madurese know well the work. They are in expert. They never do useless work which is explored in proverb “metong sokona rangbirang, ajhuwal buja ka reng girpapas (selling salt to Phinggirpapas person). The proverb bharenteng is reflected by the way Madurese seeking the job They surely come to the place of work. It is explored in Madurese proverb “temon nangtang lalab”. Not all of Madurese can do the work well, such in proverb ‘mara perreng tale”, but also just seem in expert but in fact they can not do it well. By those proverbs, it is wished Madurese knowing their capabilities.
Madurese is not always in expert, it because of their unseriousness. It is caused:
- Atena jhan-jhan: They are confused and mainly want to get new job
- Palakona lamlam: They work slowly
- Lepek: They have weak body
The person with in those causes is such this proverb “alelet”, it determines t hat they walk slowly and caused the work is not finished.
The age does not influence the diligence and seriousness also the work spirit. It is reflected in proverb watowa kalanceng, sajan towa sajane kenceng. It differs to American, the old man does not work any more, They may have retired.

B. Kar-ngarkar colpe’: work hard

Diligence is not the one of Madurese’s work values that widely acknowledge. It is because their though to work hard for just a mouthful rice is also admired. It is said in Madurese proverb Kar-ngarkar colpe’. They attend to do something that rather unimportant and trial hardly to get something either it is little. No compatible work for them as long as it is halal. They never reject to be a pedicab driver, sate seller, farmer, port laborer, and any other hard works.
Madurese are advised not to avoid a hard job, je’ senggeih malarat sakoni’ nyopre ta’ kadhetengan kasossaan rajhe. While American is in contrast. They seem to prestige with hard work. They want everything they do is completely comfortable. Basically, as long as Madurese have power to work, they avoid to be a beggar. They are not tired to work under the sun shines and should have pello koneng. They have been examined and proved that they are able to endure to stay for long time abhantal ombe’ asapo’ angin. For these they could survive either it is in an extreme situation. Most Madurese work abhanteng tolang and ambha’ pate just to get something little. For that they must manage the outcome with naker kakan and ngakan asella are.
Poverty is not compatible for them as long as they have a job and could work hard to solve. No place for oreng thalmos (one who is lazy to work) but they are called as balattang, a sign of a lazyman.
In America, most of Americans are reluctant to get any job. They will choose the job that is appropriate for him. If the job is lower standard, they will think it over. They are afraid of feeling shy for friend or relative if the job is not noble. On the contrary, Madurese won’t think it over whether the job is noble or not. Above all, they can get job and get income from the job they had.
C. Nyaronen: Intentionally work

Madurese wants to do any work either it is difficult or easy, in dirty condition or clean, contemptible or noble, low or high income during the work is allowed. This attitude is very evident to unsuccessful people because of Modal problem in any business and uneducated man. That’s why they will receive low commission/salary happily than being suffering because of having no income at all. As this proverb “adhe’ berres jeghung e tana’, tadhe’ jeghung sabreng e kanase”
Madurese will not be reluctant to begin any work “nyaronen” that means of beginning something from a simple one. Because they have conviction that the activity they did frequently, it will become great and give any result for them. They will not do something unprofitable. For instance in trading, they begin from a very little modal in business. They did it seriously, as the result they get what they effort.

D. Bada Kettosanna: We Must Produce Something

Madurese people have principles that if they have a problem, they must look for some solutions to overcome it. If we have problem and we didn’t try to overcome it, so it can make us have many problems in our live. Madurese people will carry out various ways to overcome their problem although they not success on it, because they can to try it again. It is better than they didn’t do anything. It is suitable with Madurese proverb which say that “maskea mowa mon bada jharaba’na etendes keya”. Every people must have clearly purpose in their live. If their want to overcome their problem, they must have hard intention and good effort until they can found solution to overcome their problem.
Besides that if Madurese people have an activity, it must produce something that useful for them. Because of that they will think and plan their activity perfectly in order to get success. An activity which had been done without good planning just spend our time, less our energy and less much money but we get nothing from it. For unsuccessful activity, Madurese people said that “mara abujai tase’” or “name jhagung ta’ kalowar tongghul”.
Madurese people didn’t like to someone who didn’t finished their job completely. For example someone who cleaned plates, but he/she doing another job whereas his/her first job is not finished. It can make no one job which finished well. We must finished our job as well as possible, if we had been finished our job so we can doing another job in order to get outcome from our job. Every job which we do, must produce something or “bada kettosanna”. Madurese people hates someone who irresponsible with their job.
In facing some problem, someone must have good principle and brave to take decision. We aren’t permitted to followe someone’s opinion if it is not suitable with our opinion. In Madurese proverb treated this situation like “noro’ ghulina angen”. If we will become someone who easy to influenced by other people and afraid to take good decision so another people have a low opinion of us.

E. Jhak-ngajek : Cooperation

Cooperation in Madura is commonly defined as act together with Madurese proverb asaor mano’ or asaor pakse (together like bird). Cooperation will guarantee for successful and on the other hand if the society dispersed, Madurese express this case with marah paneppe’ esempai. It will bring them to the failure so Madurese that successful will be reached by unity.
Anthropologist said that cooperation is one of characteristics of society the has just developed in their civilization, it mean that cooperation in society is the first stage of culture and civilization development and it undergone by Madurese. Sarembe is the term of Madurese to express good attitude for workingb together in one family while solidarity of family is often expressed by ras-bharessen tan palotanan, les-bellesen sataretanan (help each other in one family). Cooperation in Madura is not only exist among family but also in society. They agree to work something together.
Most of Madurese aware to cooperate, so that they inherit their children to do so, and they also create common proverb tadha’ oreng jhareppen eserrop dhibi’ (no body can help him/her self). In cooperation they use the term ghante bata. It means that help can be given to every society who need it and it must be taking turn.
In the uptown cooperation attitude can be found in the case of jhak-ajhak. It means that society help somebody without wage, for example building house. They feel it as obligation while the host have to provide everything for the sake of its success involve providing meal and drinking for workers. This tradition is not exist in the downtown. They like to live individual so someone who needs a help has to pay.
Cooperation is not only exist physically but also realized by getting together in one place such as arisan (saving money by taking turn),kamrat (reciting shalawat),kolom(reciting al qur’an).
Cooperation is also realized with to’oto’, it means some one conduct party to get money by inviting all neighbors .Cooperation is also realized by helping some body who conduct wedding party or hajj party since the society realize that conducting party need much money so they contribute the house by giving money, rice or sugar.
Cooperation in America is not like cooperation which we talk above but it just exist in their business ,whether it is inside country or with the other country such as cooperation between America and Germany, it’s called bilateral cooperation while cooperation with many countries multilateral cooperation.

F. Bhume songenep ta’ abingker :
a. The transmigration culture of Madurese
Madurese is well known as people who often move from Madura to other areas. The movement processes can be transmigration or urbanization. Since formerly, Madurese likes alajâr (sail). The term of alajâr not only means that Madurese like to sail but it means that Madurese is accustomed to move to other places. If young Madurese who moved to other place, they are accustomed to be commuters where they worked even though their family were not willing in permitting them.
In moving to other places, it related to this term “bhume songenep ta’ abingker”. The term means that Madura isn’t limited by any area. This term appeared from the Madurese ancestors who suggested their family not only to be in Madura but also to have experience in other places (hijrah). This term as if became license for Madurese to be wherever they can get experience, find some jobs even just couple.
For result of the fact, Madurese used to have transmigration by arabut mangghâr (taking all members of the family and the wealth). For the sake of success, Madurese supposed to ngambâng kanyot (follow situation of the place where they transmigrated). Its term proposed that Madurese should be able to adapt with the environment.
Madurese who tried to adapt with the environment will always try like the native of the place where they stayed. The term then appeared that they should feel like tarata ěocol ka alas (feel like strange chicken at the jungle). Consequently, Madurese supposed not to be arrogant and emphasize their private interest.
However, the Madurese has unique term in transmigration. Whoever in out of Madura had intension to come back to Madura. Wherever they are, Madurese shouldn’t forget their hometown. At least, they can visit their family in Madura in order not to break silaturrahmi among Madurese. Madurese who stayed in Madura will always consider Madurese who stayed out of Madura as part of their family.
b. The transmigration culture of Americans
American has no specific term in transmigration. The process of transmigration of American is caused by some reasons. The reason could be family, geography, even economy reason. In addition, the reason is not commonly caused by the culture of transmigration on the reason of getting any job in where they went.
They tend to transmigrate in other places for the basis of their private reason. Therefore, you will not find the transmigration culture of American that intentionally for getting any job.

G. Socializing in Madura and America
As we know, Madura is generally known as agricultural island. That’s why, many Madurese have profession as farmers. They still make us of nature to be their income. Beside being farmer, Madurese also has a profession as teacher and fisherman.
Being farmer is more interested by Madurese more than being fisherman and teacher. Usually, someone who has become a teacher or a fisherman is still farming. Therefore, farming becomes entrenched in this island. It can create a cultural socialization that is very important to make solidarity, relationship and helping each other etc. it is because Madurese has high solidarity. They really respect each other. It can be seen in the reality around us, although a farmer is busy with his work, he still answers someone’s greeting that is passing near to him. And he usually use small talk. For example:
Someone is passing near to farmer, and he says: “Kelenon, ki’ ta’ ambueh, la nare’ pon”. “o bunten, nangkung nikah” the farmer answers. Then they will talk for about five minute.
Beside that, socializing between teachers, teacher and students, teacher and society and teacher and teacher and students’ parent us also done. They know each other. For example; socializing between teacher and students’ parent that talk about student’s problem. Therefore, they can solve the students’ problem together.
It is different and America. America is an advance country. Many people there tend to work in some officer, stores and factories. They respect to their time and the work discipline. It can refrain them from socializing either with their family or their environment. For example: an employee under pressure at work often cannot afford to respond to social calls and visits. Usually, they are as individual people, not as social people such as in Madura.
The differences of socializing between Madura and America is because of the time itself. American socialize and meet only in work environment that is for work relationship. And the time has been managed before. But not in Madura. The work in Madura are more flexible. And the rules are not be tied. That’s why, they can easily socialize each other. But not in America, the works are so structured. Thus, almost times have been managed for working. Moreover it also needs to work overtime. And there is little time to socialize each other.


H. Ngowan bakto: Time Management
The important of time management in Madura is expressed in proverbs which is becomes their characteristic, for example jha’ amberi pole (don’t delay any activities) it means that Madurese never postpone their job or their activity. Because they think that time is golden, so they must use their time as well as possible. Madurese said, someone who wasting their time will get lost. It can explore by some proverbs, such as dhala jaggur (till adult). It describes someone who cannot finish their study till adult. Another proverb is dhale abaru’ (deeply), this proverb describe a woman who doesn’t get couple till she is getting old. Those proverbs indicate some disadvantages for someone who late to act.
Madurese should be able to manage the time effectively, they must use their time as well as possible. Intercorrelation with American proverb Time is Money, Maduerese are demanded to ngijebhi bekto. Consequently it multiplay produce Madurese appreciate someone who work hard and talk less. It indicates diligence and effectiveness in working.
Another proverb which indicate the importance of well time management is akaramas sambi mandi. It means that Madurese like to finish two work at once.
In other side, Madurese suggest to work not in a hurry so they still have time to share each other in their routine work but it different from American. In America no time for something useless so they have special time to find special satisfaction and freedom from their routine work.

I. Jargon
Jargon is words or expression used by a particular profession or group of people and difficult for another to understand. It likes a character or symbols of people. Many kinds of jargons in this world. One person and the others have different jargon deepens on their style. For example, Madura will be zone of industry. It means that industry become a jargon of Madura.
Generally, work values in Madura do not have a jargon. They usually work just to be life. Sometimes, they do not get salary although they worked hard. It is the different between Madurese and American.
In America there is equality of opportunity to be successful that illustrated by Horatio Alger. He is novelist and write a book under the title “ American dream “. In ninetieth century, that book describe about poor people which became rich because of work hard, honesty and luck. When people can give a good job or have opportunity to develop creative and intellectual skills, it will influence to their positions and also their salary. In 1912 century, many poor immigrants came to the America to be able to rise their economic after they read that book. Today, this book just myth because many people still have difficulty to be rich in America.

J. Livelihood of Madurese and American
a. Madura
Most Americans are materially prosperous. They have a living standard higher than other places around the world. They live in a cultural center with modern communication systems. Americans believe strongly in maintaining the mass media and entertainment. They can be very self-centered and selfish, and do not care about other worlds, but they can also be very generous and likes to help people in need, also to understand what is happening in the world outside America. They are people who seem to constantly move and dictated by the career and the surrounding environment.
Although most Americans live in prosperity, according to statistics, the level of violence in American society, including the worst in the world. However, the average American does not usually experience violence in everyday life. Although the situation has changed dramatically in the last half century, racism has played an important role in American history.
b. America
Most of Madurese are agrarian professions. If there is an assumption in Madura livelihood very difficult, it is very true in accordance with the phenomenon of population. During this Madurese population, say can take only limited results of his farming income alone. Such as agricultural activities, the most dominant or most liked by residents include tobacco, corn, soybeans or green beans, and rice. The fifth plant variety that is the source of income.



























CHAPTER III

Conclusion
After getting understanding about work values itself, the writer then explain about the distinctiveness of Madurese and American culture about work values. Based on the explanation, we can conclude that there are some terms of work values in Madura and America. The results are:
a) Bharenteng: Very Diligent that has no much difference
b) Kar-ngarkar colpe’: work hard that also has no much difference
c) Nyaronen: Intentionally work that you will not find in America
d) Bada Kettosanna: We Must Produce Something, it look same
e) Jhak-ngajek : Cooperation
f) Bhume songenep ta’ abingker that America has no transmigration culture
g) Socializing in Madura and America that has different culture
h) Ngowan bakto: Time Management that find either in America and Madura
i) Jargon that existed in America not in Madura
j) Livelihood of Madurese and American look different













BIBLIOGRAPHY
Holidin. Cross Cultural Understanding. Malang: UMM Press
Ahmad rifai, Mien. 2007. Manusia Madura. Yogyakarta: Pilar Media
Levine, Bee R & Mara B. Adelman. 1982. Beyond Language. USA: Prentice-Hall

SILOGISME

SILOGISME
A. Pengertian silogisme
Silogisme adalah suatu pengambilan kesimpulan, dari dua macam keputusan (yang mengandung unsur yang sama, dan salah satunya harus universal) suatu keputusan yang ketiga, yang kebenarannya sama dengan dua keputusan yang mendahuluinya.
Contoh: Semua manusia pasti akan meninggal
Tono adalah manusia
Jadi : Tono pasti akan meninggal
Putusan-putusan yang menjadi sumber putusan terakhir disebut premisse. Priemisse yang wilayahnya umum disebut premisse mayor, sedangkan yang wilayahnya tidak/kurang umum disebut presmisse minor. Adapun putusan yang ditarik dari premisse ini desebut konklusi atau kesimpulan. Kedua premisse itu sering disebut juga antesedens. Sedangkan konklusi lalu dinamai konsekwens.
B. Hukum-hukum silogisme
Supaya silogisme dapat merupakan jalan pikiran yang baik ada beberapa hukum dalam silogisme. Hukum tersebtu bukanlah buatan para ahli-pikir, tapi hanya dirumuskan oleh para ahli itu. Di bawah ini hukum-hukum yang menyangkut term-term antara lain :
1. Hukum pertama. Silogisme tidak boleh lebih atau kurang dari tiga term. Kurang dari tiga term berarti bukan silogisme. Jika sekiranya ada empat term, apakah yang akan menjadi pokok perbandingan, tidak mungkinlah orang membandingkan dua hal denga dua hal pula, dan lenyaplah dasar perbandingan.
2. Hukum kedua. Term antara atau tengah (medium) tidak boleh masuk (terdapat) dalam kesimpulan. Term medium hanya dimaksudkan untuk mengadakan perbandingan dengan term-term. Perbadingan ini terjadi dalam premis-premis. Karena itu term medium hanya berguna dalam premis-premis saja.
3. Hukum ketiga. Wilayah term dalam konklusi tidak boleh lebih luas dari wilayah term itu dalam premis. Hukum ini merupakan peringatan, supaya dalam konklusi orang tidak melebih-lebihkan wilayah yang telah diajukan dalam premis. Sering dalam praktek orang tahu juga, bahwa konklusi tidak benar, oleh karena tidak logis (tidak menurut aturan logika), tetapi tidak selalu mudah menunjuk, apa salahnya itu.
4. Term antara (medium) harus sekurang-kurangnya satu kali universal. Jika term antara paticular, baik dalam premis mayor maupun dalam premis minor, mungkin saja term antara itu menunjukkan bagian-bagian yang berlainan dari seluruh luasnya. Kalau demikian term antara, tidak lagi berfungsi sebagai term antara, dan tidak lagi menghubungkan atau memisahkan subyek dengan predikat.
Contoh : Beberapa pengusaha pembohong
Amir adalah pengusaha
Amir adalah pembohong.
Sedangkan hukum-hukum yang menyangkut premis-premis (keputusan-keputusan) antara lain :
a. Jika kedua premis (mayor dan minor) positif, maka kesimpulannya harus positif juga.
b. Kedua premis tidak boleh negatif, sebab term antara (medium) tidak lagi berfungsi sebagai penghubung atau pemisah subyek dengan predikat. Dalam silogisme sekurang-kurangnya subyek atau predikat harus dipersamakan oleh term antara (medium)
Contoh : Batu adalah bukan binatang
Anjing adalah bukan batu
Anjing adalah bukan binatang.
c. Kedua premis tidak boleh particular. Sekurang-kurangnya satu premis harus universal. Kalau tidak, berarti melanggar hukum c, d bagian hukum-hukum term.
Contoh : Ada orang kaya tidak tentram hatinya
Ada orang jujur bukan orang kaya
Orang jujur tidak tentram hatinya.
d. Kesimpulan harus sesuai dengan premis yang paling lemah. Keputusan particular adalah keputusan yang lemah dibandingkan dengan keputusan universal. Keputusan negatif adalah keputusan yang lemah dibandingkan dengan keputusan positif karena itu jika ada satu premis particular, maka kesimpulan harus particular. Jika salah satu premis negatif, maka kesimpulannya harus negatif. Jika salah satu premis negatif dan particular, maka kesimpulannya harus negatif dan particular juga. Kalau tidak akan terjadi ketidak beresan lagi dalam kesimpulan.
C. Bentuk silogisme
Mengingat menurut bentuknya, bahwa ada putusan negatif, maka ada juga gambaran S = M, M ≠ P, jadi S ≠ P . dengan demikian silogisme dibagi ke dalam empat bentuk. Perbedaan pada masing-masing bentuk terlihat pada perobahan letak medium dalam premis mayor maupun dalam premis minor. Empat macam bentuk silogisme adalah :
1. M – P
S – M
S – P
2. P – M
S – M
S – P
D. Kekeliruan Berfikir
1. Kesesatan-Kesesatan dalam Penalaran
Menalar adalah berpikir dengan tepat. Oleh karena hanya manusia saja yang mampu berpikir, maka menalar itu obyeknya juga manusia. Manusia itu didalam kegiatannya berusaha mengolah apa yang dapat diketahui dengan indera untuk sampai pada suatu kebenaran. Dengan demikian sasaran dari penyelidikan penalaran itu adalah manusia.
Untuk sampai pada suatu ketepatan bernalar, terdapat rambu-rambu yang sangat perlu diperhatikan, agar tidak terjadi kesesatan.
Kesesatan penalaran dapat terjadi pada siapa saja, bukan karena kesesatan dalam fakta-fakta, tetapi dari bentuk penarikan kesimpulan yang sesat, karena tidak dari premis-premis yang menjadi acuannya.
2. Kemungkinan Kesesatan Berpikir Deduktif
A. Kesesatan Yang Bersifat Semantik atau Ambiguitas (Ambiguity)
a.1. Kesesatan-kesesatn Ambiguitas
1. Kesesatan Ekuivoka. Suatu kesesatan karena anggapan bahwa kata-kata selalu dapat dipakai dalam pengertian yang sama sedangkan sebenarnya terdapat ambiguitas.
2. Kesesatan Amfiboli. Amfiboli itu merupakan kesalahan dalam susunan kalimat atau proposisi. Seluruh argument terkena penafsiran ganda. Penafsiran ganda seperti itu menyebabkan ketidak jelasan karena susunan kalimatnya begitu sulit dipahami. Untuk keraguan, sering kali ditempuh jalan dengan membuat pertanyaan terhadap kalimat yang disusun itu.
3. Kesesatan Komposisi. Kesesatan itu mungkin sekali terjadi, bila kata atu sekumpulan kata yang disebut. Term di dalam satu bagian dipandang "secar distributive", dan pada bagian lain term sebagai akibatnya adalah bahwa uraian penjelas yang disusun itu berangkat dari pola piker "masing-masing" atau particular, dipergunakan secar distributive itu berfungsi sebagai proposisi individual. Proposisi individual adalah suatu proposisi yang menyatakan masing-masing anggota suatu golongan dan secara individual.
4. Kesesatan dalam Pembagian. Kesesatan ini berkebalikan dari kesesatan komposisi, yang telah dibicarakan di atas. Kesesatan ini karena orang menganggap apa yang benar bagi keseluruhan, juga benar bagi setiap orang secara individual. Suatu kebenaran yang berlaku bagi keseluruhan terjadi juga akan benar bagi bagian-bagiannya. Sebaliknya terjadi pula apa yang tidak benar bagi keseluruhan juga dianggap tidak benar bagi bagian-bagiannya.
5. Kesesatan Aksentuasi
Semula berarti bahwa kata-kata yang ambiguitas yaitu pengertiannya akan berbeda, bila aksen ataupun tekanan dalam bicaranya berbeda pula. Sehingga aksen itu yang menyebabkan ambiguitas.
B. Kesesatan Yang Bersifat Materiil
1. Kesesatan Aksidensia
Aksidensia adalah hal-hal yang ditambahkan ke dalam hal ang substansial (hakikat). Aristoteles dengan teori 10 kategorialnya, mengajarkan tentang 1 substansi dan 9 aksidensia bagi semua yang "ada". Kesesatan ini biasa terjadi karena orang mengira bahwa apa yang dianggap benar dalam substansi itu, juga benar dalam aksidensinya atau sifat-sifastnya, maupun keadaan-keadaan yang eksistensinya secara kebetulan (aksidensi). Sedangkan setiap subyek tertenu itu mempunyai cirri-ciri khusus yang telah menjadi kodratnya sejak adanya eksistensi diri dan yang membedakannya dengan subyek lain.
2. Kesesatan sebaliknya tentang aksidensia. Kesesatan terjadi oleh karena kebenaran yang hanya kebetulan (aksidensia), dianggapnya sebagai hal yang kebenarannya substansial.
3. Kesesatan tentang Hal-hal yang Tidak Relevan. Kesesatan tentang hal-hal yang tidak relevan sering kali disengaja guna membangkitkan emosi atau mengalihkan perhatian seseorang ataupun sekelompok orang dari masalah yang dipersoalkan. Hal seperti ini sering dipergunakan untuk memperdayakan lawan bicara. Cara penyajiannya yang sering meyakinkan, tertapi faktanya justru sangat kabur ataupun bukan yang sedang dibahas. Keterpedayaan seseorang atau sekelompok orang itu karena memang sudah tidak tahu lagi bagaimana akan membantah suatu pernyataan.
C. Kesesatan Berdasarkan Anggapan yang Tidak Benar
c.1. Kesesatan Karena Menganggap Bahwa Kebenarnnya telah terbukti
Sering pula disebut sebagi "petition principii" atau "fallacy of begging the question".
Kesesesatan ini terjadi oleh karena tidak memberi bukti yang seharusnya diterangkan dalam proses penalarannya. Pembicara hanya mengulang-ulangi pernyataannya itu dengan kata-kata lain yang sama artinya. Sangatlah disayangkan bahwa dengan demikian itu, ia yakin telah menciptakan kemajuan-kemajuan dalam penalaran.
c.2. Kesesatan karena sebab yang salah
Tidak jarang kesesatan ini sulit dibedakan dengan kesesatan dalam induksi, yang menyatakan "post hoc propter ohc". Post hoc propter artinya adalah sesuatu memang terjadi setelahnya, tetapi bukanlah sebagai akibatnya.
Kesesatan ini dapat terjadi, karena adanya anggapan, bahwa lebih dari satu peristiwa yang terjadi secara berturut-turut, lalau dianggap mempunyai hubungan sebab akibat.
c.3. Kesesatan atas dasar konsekuensi ataupun atas dasar nonsequitur
Dalam pengertian yang luas, nonesequitur itu bisa diartikan suatu argumen non-selogisme. Suatu kesimpulan yang ditarik, tidak berdasarkan premis-premis, ataupun seandainya dari premis, namun premisnya tidak relevan. Meskipun tidak tertutup kemungkinan bahwa kesimpulan itu benar.
c.4. Kesesatan berdasarkan pertanyaan yang kompleks
Pengajuan pertanyaan yang kompleks dan bersifat pancingan, sehingga jawabnnya dapat mengandung salah satu pengakuan, atau juga mungkin dua-duanya sebagai pengakuan, yang sebenarnya hal itu tidak dikehendaki oleh yang ditanyai. Hal semacam itu sering kali dilakukan untuk merugikan dirinya dalam suatu pemeriksaan.
3. Kemungkinan Kesesatan Perpikir Induktif
A. Kesesatan Dalam Pengamatan
1. Pengamatan yang tidak lengkap. Bahwa pengamatan yang telah dilakukan itu tidak lengkap memang besar sekali peluangnya, hal itu sering kali disebabkan karena terbatasnya waktu dan dana. Atau memang sengaja hanya memperhatikan hal-hal tertentu yang relevan saja.
2. Pengamatan yang tidak teliti. Sering kali para ilmuwan menghadapi jalan buntu dalam membenarkan cara kerja induktif yang akan diterapkan dalam ilmu pengetahuan itu.
Ketatnya logika deduktif dipakai oleh Popper untuk memperlihatkan cara kerja ilmu alam yang bentuk perjalanannya secara induktif. Dasarnya sederhana, yang dapat dicontohkan sebagai berikut:
B. Kesesatan Dalam Penggolongan
1. Penggolongan yang tidak lengkap
2. Penggolongan yang tumpang tindih
3. Penggolongan yang campur aduk
C. Kesesatan Dalam Penentuan Hipotesis
1. Hipotesis yang meragukan. Sebenarnya ada suatu keinginan bahwa di dalam menyusun hipotesis itu, kita memperoleh kebebasan sebesar-sebesarnya, namun bila tidak memperhatikan pedoman yang telah ditentukan, dapat mengakibatkan kekeliruan.
2. Hipotesis yang bertentangan dengan fakta. Hipotesis disusun sesuai dengan apa yang benar-benar terjadi dan bukan spekulasi
D. Kesesatan-kesesatan Dalam Penentuan Sebab
Bila ada 2 peristiwa atau lebih terjadi secara berturut-turut maka tidak selamanya merupakan "sebab akibat" dan tidak selamanya mesti "memiliki hubungan".
1. Analisis yang tidak cukup Antedennya. Untuk mendukung suatu analisis agar mudah mendapat pengukuhan, haruslah dilakukan dengan menyebutkan anteseden-anteseden secara lengkap dan mereduksi factor-faktor yang tidak relevan. Bila tidak demikian maka kesimpulan yang diambil tidak akan merupakan akibat atau tidak ditarik dari antesedennya.
2. Analisis tanpa perbedaan-perbedaan. Bila membuat analisis tentan perbedaan-perbedaan tetapi justru tidak mengemukakan perbedaan-perbedaannya maka analisisnya tidak sah. Terutama bila menggunakan metode ataupun perbandingan.
3. Keseiringan untuk sementara yang kebetulan. Hal-hal yang terjadi secara seiring kali menimbulkan kesesatan dalam menafsirkan atau dalam usaha untuk memahaminya. Kesesatan ini oleh karena tergoda oleh metode berpikir sebab akibat.
4. Generalisasi yang tergesa-gesa. Kesesatan ini sebenarnya sederhana. Oleh karena hanya merupakan penyimpulan yang berkelebihan dari yang dapat dijamin oleh bukti yang diajukan. Mungkin catatan peristiwa atau faktanya belum tuntas tetapi telah menyusun kesimpulan secara final.
E. Kesesatan Analogi
Kesesatan dalam analogi itu banyak dilakukan oleh suku-suku primitive pada masa-masa silam. Mereka belum mampu membedakan secara tajam barang-barang yang satu dengan yang lainnya. Menurut logikanya, barang-barang yang serupa itu tidak ada satu sama lain.Kesesatan itu akan tampak bila diterapkan penyusunan analogi tentang sifat-sifat manusia.
F. Kesesatan Dalam Statistik
1. Sampling yang tidak mewakili populasi. Bentuk generalisasi yang sangat tergesa-gesa dalam statistic adalah bentuk kesesatan utama. Kesesatan ini terjadi karena sampling yang diambil tidak mewakili populasi, sehingga generalisasinya juga tidak benar.
2. Penerapan gejala individual yang tidak bersifat umum. Kesesatan ini berwujud salah tafsir statistic yang lazimnya berlaku bagi orang awam.
3. Kepercayaan kepada statistic. Hasil perhitungan statistic merupakan suatu ketelitian dan kecermatan serta mengikuti metode analisis yang telah terbukti dan pasti. Stastik mempergunakan juga istilah-istilah tertentu seperti : mean, penyimpangan, korelasi yang dapat dipercaya dan pasti. Namun demikian statistic itu tidak dapat melepaskan diri dari probalitas dan kadar sebenarnya menunjukkan suatu derajat kemungkinan tertentu.
4. Kesesatan korelasi secara kebetulan. Kesesatan ini dapat terjadi, karena ada gejala korelasi sementara yang penyebabnya persamaan waktu ataupun persamaan kepentingan namun dipercaya sebagi sesuatu yang dianggap mempunyai korelasi riil.

TUGAS-TUGAS PERKEMBANGAN

TUGAS-TUGAS PERKEMBANGAN


Tugas perkembangan menurut Robert J. Havighurs adalah sebagian tugas yang muncul pada suatu periode tertentu dalam kehidupan individu, yang merupakan keberhasilan yang dapat memberikan kebahgian serta memberi jalan bagi tugas-tugas berikutnya.

Tugas-tugas perkembangan tersebut merupakan pengharapan atas apa yang akan diakukan oleh seseorang pada masa perkembangannya. Tugas-tugas ini bersifat normatif, on time, dan diharapkan serta diantisipasi oleh individu.

Havighurst (Kimmel, 1995: 15) menawarkan suatu konsep tugas perkembangan yang meliputi pengetahuan, keterampilan, sikap atau fungsi yang diharapkan dapat dicapai oleh individu pada setiap tahap perkembangannya. Tugas-tugas perkembangan ini harus dicapai sebelum seorang individu melangkah ke tahapan perkembangan selanjutnya. Apabila seorang individu gagal dalam memenuhi tugas perkembangannya, maka ia akan sulit untuk memenuhi tugas perkembangan fase selanjutnya. Atau, apabila ia gagal melaksanakan tugas perkembangannya pada waktu yang tepat, maka ia akan mengalami kesulitan untuk menyelesaikannya di waktu yang lain, atau melaksanakan tugas perkembangan pada tahapan yang lebih lanjut.



Berikut akan dipaparkan tugas-tugas perkembangan dari masing-masing fase:
A. Tugas perkembangan masa kanak-kanak
Menurut psikologi perkembangan, setiap individu sejak kelahirannya sampai memasuki masa tua selalu disertai dengan tugas-tugas perkembangan. Keberhasilan setiap individu dalam melaksanakan tugas-tugas perkembangan akan melahirkan individu yang memiliki kepribadian yang sehat dan dewasa. Namun apabila tugas-tugas perkembangan tersebut gagal dilaksanakan/ dipenuhi maka akan lahir individu-individu yang memiliki gangguan kepribadian bahkan gagguan jiwa. Akan lebih bijaksana bila orang tua mengetahui tugas-tugas perkembangan anak-anak mereka, sehingga orang tua dapat membantu dan memberikan sikap yang benar terhadap anak-anak mereka menuju individu/pribadi yang sehat dan dewasa.

Tugas perkembangan fase bayi dan kanak-kanak Secara kronologis (menurut urutan waktu), masa bayi (infancy atau babyhood) berlangsung sejak individu manusia dilahirkan dari rahim ibunya sampai berusia sekitar setahun.
Sedangkan masa kanak-kanak (early childhood) adalah masa perkembangan berikutnya yakni usia setahun hingga usia antara lima atau enam tahun. Perkembangan biologis pada masa-masa ini berjalan pesat, tetapi secara sosiologis ia masih sangat terikat oleh lingkungan keluarganya. Oleh karena itu, fungsionalisasi lingkungan kelauarga pada fase ini penting sekali untuk mempersiapkan anak terjun ke dalam lingkungan yang lebih luas terutama lingkungan sekolah.

1. Tugas-tugas perkembangan pada fase ini meliputi kegiatan-kegiatan belajar
sebagai berikut :
a. Belajar memakan makanan keras, Misalnya mulai dengan bubur susu, bubur beras, nasi dan seterusnya.
b. Belajar berdiri dan berjalan, Misalnya mulai dengan berpegang pada tembok atau sandaran kursi.
c. Belajar berbicara, Misalnya mulai menyebut kata ibu, ayah dan nama-nama benda sederhana yang ada disekelilingnya.
d. Belajar mengendalikan pengeluaran benda-benda buangan dari tubuhnya, Misalnya mulai dengan meludah, membuang ingus dan seterusnya.
e. Belajar membedakan jenis kelamin antara laki-laki dan perempuan, dan bersopan santun seksual.
f. Mencapai kematangan untuk belajar membaca dalam arti mulai siap mengenal huruf, suku kata dan kata-kata tertulis,
g. Belajar mengadakan hubungan emosional selain dengan ibunya, dengan ayah, saudara kandung, dan orang-orang disekelilingnya.
h. Belajar membedakan antara hal-hal yang baik dengan yang buruk, juga antara hal-hal yang benar dan salah, serta mengembangkan atau membentuk kata hati (hati nurani).

2. Tugas perkembangan fase anak-anak Masa anak-anak (late childhood) berlangsung antara usia 6 sampai 12 tahun dengan ciri-ciri utama sebagai berikut :
 Memiliki dorongan untuk keluar dari rumah dan memasuki kelompok sebaya (peer group)
 Keadaan fisik yang memungkinkan/mendorong anak memasuki dunia permainan dan pekerjaanyang membutuhkan ketrampilan jasmani
 Memiliki dorongan mental untuk memasuki dunia konsep, logika, simbol dan komunikasi yang luas.

Adapun tugas-tugas perkembangan pada masa perkembangan kedua ini meliputi kegiatan belajar dan mengembangkan hal-hal sebagai berikut :
a. Belajar ketrampilan fisik yang diperlukan untuk bermain, Seperti lompat jauh, lompat tinggi, mengejar, menghindari kejaran dan seterusnya.
b. Membina sikap yang sehat (positif) terhadap dirinya sendiri sebagai seorang individu yang sedang berkembang, Seperti kesadaran tentang harga diri (self-esteem) dan kemampuan diri (self efficacy).
c. Belajar bergaul dengan teman-teman sebaya sesuai dengan etika moral yang berlaku di masyarakatnya.
d. Belajar memainkan peran sebagai seorang pria (jika ia seorang pria) dan sebagai seorang wanita (jika ia seorang wanita).
e. Mengembangkan dasar-dasar ketrampilan membaca, menulis dan berhitung (matematika atau aritmetika).
f. Mengembangkan konsep-konsep yang diperlukan kehidupan sehari-hari.
g. Mengembangkan kata hati, moral dan skala nilai yang selaras dengan keyakinan dan kebudayaan yang berlaku dimasyarakatnya.
h. Mengembangkan sikap objektif/lugas baik positif maupun negatif terhadap kelompok dan lembaga kemasyarakatan.
i. Belajar mencapai kemerdekaan atau kebebasan pribadi sehingga menjadi dirinya sendiri yang independen (mandiri) dan bertanggung jawab.

B. Tugas perkembangan masa remaja
Dengan memahami tugas-tugas perkembangan remaja, maka kita sebagai seorang pendidik atau seorang dewasa yang terlibat dalam penanganan masalah remaja dapat memotivasi remaja dan menolong remaja memenuhi tugas-tugas perkembangannya. Walaupun demikian, janganlah kita sebagai pendidik menempatkan posisi tugas perkembangan ini sebagai suatu paksaan kepada remaja.

Segalanya kembali kepada individu tersebut, pada apakah ia telah menyelesaikan tugas-tugas perkembangan tahap sebelumnya dengan baik, dan pada hambatan-hambatan yang dialaminya saat menyelesaikan tugas-tugas perkembangannya yang sekarang. Apabila kita menganggap tugas-tugas perkembangan itu seperti PR yang harus diselesaikan tepat waktu, dan penuh tekanan. Biarlah sang remaja menyelesaikan sendiri tugas-tugas perkembangannya menurut caranya, sementara kita orang dewasa membantunya bila ia menemui kesulitan dalam menyelesaikan tugas perkembangannya.

1. Tugas-tugas perkembangan seorang remaja menurut Havighurst adalah sebagai berikut :
a. Mencapai suatu hubungan yang baru dan lebih matang antara lawan jenis yan seusia.
b. Dapat menjalankan peran sosial maskulin dan feminin.
c. Menerima keadaan fisik dirinya sendiri dan menggunakan tubuhnya secara lebih efektif.
d. Mengharapakan dan mencapai perilaku sosial yang bertanggung jawab.
e. Mencapai kemandirian emosional dari orang tua dan orang-orang dewasa lainnya.
f. Mempersiapkan karir ekonomi.
g. Mempersiapkan perkawinan dan keluarga.
h. Memperoleh perangkat nilai dan sistem etis sebagai pegangan utnuk berperilkau dan mengembangkan ideologi.

Seorang remaja dalam mencapai tugas-tugas perkembangannya dapat dipisahkan ke dalam tiga tahap secara berurutan (Kimmel, 1995: 16). Tahap yang pertama adalah remaja awal, di mana tugas-tugas perkembangan yang harus diselesaikannya sebagai remaja adalah pada penerimaan terhadap keadaan fisik dirinya dan menggunakan tubuhnya secara lebih efektif. Hal ini karena remaja pada usia tersebut mengalami perubahan-perubahan fisik yang sangat drastis, seperti pertumbuhan tubuh yang meliputi tinggi badan, berat badan, panjang organ-organ tubuh, dan perubahan bentuk fisik seperti tumbuhnya rambut, payudara, panggul, dan sebagainya.

Tahapan yang kedua adalah remaja madya, di mana tugas perkembangan yang utama adalah mencapai kemandirian dan otonomi dari orang tua, terlibat dalam perluasan hubungan dengan kelompok baya dan mencapai kapasitas keintiman hubungan pertemanan; dan belajar menangani hubungan heteroseksual, pacaran dan masalah seksualitas.

Tahapan yang ketiga adalah remaja akhir, di mana tugas perkembangan utama bagi individu adalah mencapai kemandirian seperti yang dicapai pada remaja madya, namun berfokus pada persiapan diri untuk benar-benar terlepas dari orang tua, membentuk pribadi yang bertanggung jawab, mempersiapkan karir ekonomi, dan membentuk ideologi pribadi yang di dalamnya juga meliputi penerimaan terhadap nilai dan sistem etik.

Demikianlah, penjelasan mengenai tugas-tugas perkembangan remaja sebagai satu bagian dalam memahami remaja sebagai suatu masa transisi. Diharapkan, pada saat ini kita telah sampai pada pemahaman bahwa sesungguhnya masa remaja adalah masa transisi yang menjembatani masa kanak-kanak yang tidak matang ke masa dewasa yang matang. Macam transisi yang berbeda akan membawa pengaruh yang berbeda pula bagi individu yang mengalaminya.

Demikian pula dengan bagaimana cara kita melihat transisi tersebut akan mempengaruhi bagaimana kita dapat memahami apa yang dialami dan dirasakan oleh remaja. Selanjutnya, kita akan melihat perubahan dan perkembangan apa yang dialami oleh individu selama masa remajanya.

2. Psikologi perkembangan remaja dapat di pisahkan dengan pengkategorian melalui kesulitan kesulitan yang sering dialami oleh remaja,tuntutan psikologi untuk remaja serta periode pada saat kita remaja. Sejumlah kesulitan yang dialami kaum remaja merupakan bagian yang normal dari perkembangan ini. Beberapa kesulitan atau bahaya yang mungkin dialami kaum remaja, antara lain :
a. Variasi kondisi kejiwaan, suatu saat mungkin ia terlihat pendiam, cemberut, dan mengasingkan diri tetapi pada saat yang lain ia terlihat sebaliknya periang dan berseri-seri dan yakin.
b. Rasa ingin tahu seksual dan coba-coba, hal ini normal dan sehat.
c. Membolos
d. Perilaku anti social, seperti suka menganggu, berbohong, kejam, dan agresif
e. Penyalahgunaan obat bius
f. Psikosis
C. Tugas perkembangan masa dewasa awal
a. Memilih pasangan hidup
b. Belajar hidup dengan suami atau istri
c. Memulai kehidupan berkeluarga
d. Membimbing dan merawat anak
e. Mengolah rumah tangga
f. Memulai suatu jabatan
g. Menerima tanggung jawab sebagai warga negara
h. Menemukan kelompok sosial yang cocok dan menarik.

D. Tugas Perkembangan masa setengah baya
a. Memperoleh tanggung jawab sosial dan warga negara
b. Membangun dan memperthankan standar ekonomi
c. Membantu anak remaja untuk menjadi orang dewasa yang bertanggung jawab dan bahagia
d. Membina kegiatan pengisi waktu senggang orang dewasa
e. Membina hubungan dengan pasanga hidup sebagai pribadi
f. Menerima dan menyesuaikan diri dengan perubahan-perubahan fisik sendiri
g. Menyesuaikan diri dengan pertambahan umur
E. Tugas perkembangan orang tua
a. Menyesuaikan diri dengan menurunya kesehatan dan kekuatan fisik
b. Menyesuaikan diri terhadap masa pensiun dan menurunya pendapatan
c. Menyesuaikan diri yterhadap meninggalnya suami/istri
d. Menjalin hubuingan dengan perkumpulan manusia usia lanjut
e. Memenuhi kewajiban sosial dan sebagai warga negara
f. Membangun kehidupan fisik yang memuaskan

Menurut Havighurst setiap tahap perkembangan individu harus sejalan dengan perkembangan aspek-aspek lainya, yaitu fisik, psikis serta emosional, moral dan sosial.


















DAFTAR REFERENSI

Walgito, Bimo. Pengantar Psikologi Umum . Edisi III. Yogyakarta: Yayasan Penerbit Fak. Psikologi UGM. 1981
Irwanto dkk. Psikologi Umum. J akarta: Gramedia. 1994.
Widayatun, Tri Rusmi. Ilmu Perilaku, Infomedia. 1999.
Hamalik, Omar. Psikologi Belajar Mengajar. Bandung: Sinar Baru Algensindo. 2007.
Dahlan, Djawad & Syamsu Yusuf. Psikologi Perkembangan. Jakarta: Rieneka Cipta. 2004
http://www.geocities.com/sebaya01/perkembangan.htm
http://www.geocities.com/guntoroutamadi/artikel-remaja-tugas-perkembangan.html
http://duniapsikologi.dagdigdug.com/2008/11/19/tugas-tugas-perkembangan-anak/
http://apadefinisinya.blogspot.com/2008/05/tugas-tugas-perkembangan-remaja.html
http://apadefinisinya.blogspot.com/2009/03/tugas-tugas-perkembangan.html
http://www.mail-archive.com/syiar-islam@yahoogroups.com/msg06824.html

PSIKOLOGI PERKEMBANGAN PADA MASA BAYI

PSIKOLOGI PERKEMBANGAN PADA MASA BAYI

Sebelum membahas mengenai perkembangan pada masa bayi kita harus paham apa itu psikologi perkembangan (Developmental Psychology).
Psikologi perkembangan adalah cabang dari ilmu psikologi yang mempelajari perkembangan dan perubahan aspek kejiwaan manusia sejak dilahirkan sampai dengan mati. Satu cabang dari psikologi yang ditujukan untuk memahami semua perubahan yang terkait dengan pertambahan usia yang dialami oleh manusia sepanjang rentang kehidupannya. Dikatakan "Cabang dari ilmu psikologi", karena psikologi memiliki berbagai cabang lain yang mempelajari tentang manusia. Satu bidang dari psikologi yang fokus pada perkembangan sepanjang rentang kehidupan.
Development (Perkembangan) adalah perubahan di dalam perilaku yang berhubungan dengan pertambahan usia, dan perubahan yang terjadi kurang lebih dapat diprediksi
Ex: Seorang anak yang sejak kecil diperlakukan sebagai "mama's boy", maka dapat diprediksi ketika telah menikah akan memperlakukan istrinya sebagai pengganti sang "mama".
Kali ini penulis akan membahas mengenai perkembangan yang dialami manusia pada masa bayi. Namun sebelum membahas itu kami akan menjelaskan hal-hal yang terjadi pada bayi.

Refleks
Bayi memiliki sifat refleks untuk mengatur gerakan-gerakan bayi yang baru lahir. Sifat refleks ini adalah otomatis dan berada diluar kendali bayi yang baru lahir tersebut. Sifat-sifat refleks itu meliputi:
Refleks mengisap; terjadi ketika bayi yang baru lahir secara otomatis mengisap benda yang ditempatkan di mulut mereka.
Refleks mencari; terjadi ketika bayi itu disentuh pipinya maka ia akan memalingkan kepala ke arah benda yang menyentuhnya.
Refleks moro; adalah suatu respon tiba-tiba pada bayi yang baru lahir akibat suara atau gerakan yang mengejutkannya. Bayi tersebut akan melengkungkan punggungnya, melemparkan kepalanya ke belakang dan merentangkan lengan dan kakinya.
Refleks menggenggam; yang terjadi ketika sesuatu menyentuh telapak tangan bayi. Bayi merespon dengan cara menggenggam kuat .
BB (Berat Badan)
Ketika lahir, berat normal bayi berkisar antara 2,5 kg-4 kg. Berat lahir ini dipengaruhi kesehatan ibu dan janin. Waktu usia kehamilan 6 bulan, sebetulnya tubuh bayi sudah lengkap secara keseluruhan, tapi beratnya masih sekitar 1 kg. Antara usia kehamilan 6-9 bulan bobotnya bertambah bertambah 1-3 kg, hingga begitu lahir beratnya sudah bertambah sebanyak pertambahan pada tiga bulan terakhir kehamilan itu.
Jadi, 3 bulan terakhir masa kehamilan tersebut menentukan berat lahir bayi. Maka itu, saran Eva, pada 3 bulan terakhir kehamilan, ibu harus memperhatikan konsumsi makanannya. Apalagi pada 3 bulan terakhir tersebut, nafsu makan ibu juga cenderung meningkat. Sebab, jika ibu mengkonsumsi makanan yang berlebihan, bayi yang dilahirkannya pun akan besar. Tentunya ini akan menyulitkan ibu untuk persalinan normal. “Sebaiknya, bila usia kehamilan sudah 6 bulan ke atas, ibu mengatur makanannya sesuai dengan gizi seimbang termasuk banyak makan sayur dan buah-buahan segar.”
Eva juga mewanti-wanti agar kaum ibu jangan salah kaprah menafsirkan bahwa karena hamil ia harus makan untuk dua orang alias dua porsi. Hal ini tak benar. “Kebutuhan wanita dewasa sehari-harinya itu, kan, 2.000 kalori. Jadi, bukan berarti saat hamil harus digandakan. Yang benar, ibu hamil perlu tambahan kalori sebanyak 300 kalori. Jadi, yang dibutuhkan sebetulnya hanya 2.300 kalori.”
Berat lahir akan mempengaruhi BB anak selanjutnya. Jadi, kalau bayinya kecil, nantinya pun akan kecil, dan sebaliknya. Umumnya, kenaikan BB di bulan pertama kira-kira 1-1,5 kg. Bulan kedua kenaikannya antara 3/4-1 kg. Bulan ketiga naik antara 1/2-3/4 kg. Makin bertambah usianya, kenaikan BB tak terlalu besar. “Biasanya berat bayi setelah usia 4-5 bulan akan jadi dua kali berat lahir. Usia setahun jadi 3 kali berat lahir. Jadi, kalau berat bayi lahir 4 kg, usia 4-5 bulan mencapai 8 kg, dan usia setahun jadi 12 kg.” Walaupun perkiraan itu bukan harga mati, karena tak semua bayi dengan berat lahir 4 kg akan berukuran 12 kg saat usia setahun. “Tapi masih disebut normal bila plus-minusnya 2 kg. Misal, beratnya hanya 10 kg,” jelas Eva. Untuk kenaikan berat badan ini, tambahnya, ada kurva normal yang menentukan berat anak apakah termasuk kurang, normal atau berlebih.
Faktor yang mempengaruhi BB anak antara lain asupan makanan yang baik, terutama dari ASI selama 6 bulan pertama. Bukan itu saja. Faktor penyakit bisa menyebabkan pertumbuhan BB anak tak maksimal. Penyakit yang bisa dijumpai pada usia bayi adalah penyakit jantung bawaan. “Jantung itu penting sekali untuk mengalirkan darah yang membawa zat-zat makanan. Kalau jantungnya bocor, darah bersih dan kotor akan bercampur, dengan demikian tubuh pun akan kekurangan oksigen yang menyebabkan gangguan pertumbuhan.” Penyakit jantung bawaan pun berpengaruh pada daya isap bayi yang tak baik, dengan demikian asupan makannya pun berkurang. Selain itu, penyakit diare juga dapat mengganggu pertumbuhan. Kalau dalam seharinya bisa 15 kali BAB, tentu makanan yang masuk hanya sekadar lewat, tak ada yang diserap tubuh. Demikian pula penyakit batuk-batuk atau kelainan paru-paru bawaan juga bisa menyebabkan pertumbuhan anak tak maksimal. Bukankah penyakit ini akan menimbulkan sesak nafas hingga menyebabkan daya isap bayi juga tak kuat? Berarti pemasukan makannya pun kurang. Hal ini akan berpengaruh pada metabolismenya, membuat BB anak pun jadi tak optimal atau kurus.
TB (Tinggi Badan)
Menurut Eva, pertumbuhan TB bayi juga dipengaruhi asupan makanan. Bila asupannya kurang, anak pun akan jadi kurus dan pendek. Selain juga akan menganggu perkembangan otaknya. Berbeda dengan orang dewasa, yang bila asupan makanannya kurang, mungkin hanya mempengaruhi BB-nya, sementara tingginya tidak jadi berkurang atau pendek, karena pertumbuhannya sudah selesai.
Umumnya bayi baru lahir memiliki tinggi antara 45 cm-52 cm. Pertumbuhan TB anak cepat sekali. Usia setahun, misal, tingginya akan 1 1/2 kali panjang lahir, dan usia 4 tahun 2 kali panjang lahir. Jadi, semisal panjang lahirnya 50 cm, saat usia setahun tingginya 75 cm dan usia 4 tahun 100 cm. Jika makanannya kurang, TB-nya pun tak mencapai 75 cm di usia setahun. Selain faktor makanan, TB juga dipengaruhi faktor genetik. Jadi, kalau TB-nya kurang, perlu dilihat pula bagaimana genetiknya atau tinggi badan orang tuanya. Apakah ayah atau ibunya tinggi atau pendek.
Ketika badan meninggi, tulang-tulang ikut bertambah panjang, terutama tulang-tulang panjang, seperti tulang tangan atas-bawah dan tungkai atas-bawah. Dengan bertambah usia, tulang yang masih rawan atau yang berada di ujung-ujung tulang panjang itulah yang akan terus bertumbuh. Faktor yang berperan pada percepatan pertumbuhan tulang ini adalah makanan yang mengandung kalsium. Jika kalsiumnya cukup, tentu pertumbuhan tulangnya juga bagus, kecuali anak-anak dengan kelainan bawaan, seperti penyakit ricket (rachitis) atau kurang vitamin D, hingga tulang-tulangnya akan tetap pendek.
Lingkar Kepala
Lingkar kepala berkaitan dengan pertumbuhan otak. Pada bayi baru lahir, ukuran kepalanya umumnya kecil karenasutura-sutura-nya (sambungan tulang kepalanya) belum menyatu atau belum terikat. Nah, dengan bertambah usia, tulang-tulang rawan yang masih belum terikat itu akan meregang karena pertumbuhan otak, hingga ukuran lingkar kepala bayi pun bertambah besar. Sampai usia 5 tahun, tulang-tulang rawan itu akan jadi tulang tetap. Jika tulang kepala tak berkembang, otak yang berada di dalamnya tak punya ruang untuk berkembang. Akibatnya, otak akan terjepit dan membuat ia mengalami kejang-kejang. Kepala yang kecil inilah yang dinamakan mikrosefalus.
“Umumnya lingkar kepala bayi baru lahir berkisar antara 35 cm dengan standar deviasi atau plus minus 2 cm. Bila ukurannya kecil, bisa diduga ada kelainan, hingga harus dilakukan pemeriksaan USG untuk mengetahui apakah pertumbuhan otaknya tak sempurna atau tak normal.” Tapi jangan pula terpaku pada anggapan kalau anak memiliki kepala yang lebih besar akan pintar dan kalau kepala lebih kecil akan bodoh. Sebab, yang harus dilihat bukan hanya lingkar kepala saja, tapi juga kedalaman korteks otak. Ada juga yang otaknya kecil, tapi sulkus-nya (lekukannya) dalam-dalam. Jadi, kalau korteks-nya diukur sebetulnya luas. “Otak manusia dibagi dua bagian. Bagian dalam dinamakan medula, dan bagian luarnya dinamakan korteks. Pada manusia, korteks lebih tebal dibanding medula. Nah, pada binatang justru sebaliknya. Karena itu memori manusia lebih besar dari binatang. Manusia bisa bicara, menulis, membaca, dan sebagainya.”
Kerasnya Otot
Asupan makanan yang masuk juga menentukan tonus otot bayi. Ada, kan, bayi yang otot-ototnya tampak lembek, tapi ada juga yang agak keras atau padat. Biasanya bayi yang diberi ASI, tonus ototnya lebih baik dibanding yang mendapat susu botol. Selain itu, kalau diukur otot lingkar lengan atasnya akan lebih besar. Dengan otot lingkar lengan atasnya lebih besar berarti ada ketebalan lemak di bawah kulitnya, kan? Pengukuran lingkar lengan atas ini dilakukan untuk melihat status gizi anak dan biasanya dikerjakan oleh ahli gizi. Memang, pengukuran lingkar lengan atas ini jarang sekali dilakukan untuk pemeriksaan, kecuali untuk tujuan penelitian.
Di usia bayi, kekerasan dan kekuatan ototnya tergantung pula pada latihan. Biasanya otot-otot yang terlatih adalah otot mulut karena dia mengisap ASI, selain juga otot leher, tangan, dan kaki. Kalau ototnya kuat atau keras, maka perkembangan motorik kasarnya pun akan lebih cepat.
Di usia 2 bulan biasanya bayi bisa mengangkat lehernya. Pada usia 3-4 bulan mengangkat tegak lehernya 90 derajat. Sekitar usia 4-5 bulan sudah bisa tengkurap dan membalik-balikan badannya. Kemudian, sekitar usia 6-7 bulan sudah duduk sendiri. Usia 8-9 bulan berdiri, dan 9-12 bulan berjalan.
Begitupun dengan perkembangan motorik halusnya. Bayi usia 0-12 bulan perkembangan motorik halusnya antara lain; dapat menjangkau, menggenggam dan memasukkan benda ke dalam mulut. Mengenai benda dengan menggunakan jempol dan satu jari. Memindahkan benda dari tangannya. Menjatuhkan benda mainan dan memunggutnya kembali.
Semua perkembangan di atas tergantung kekuatan ototnya. Bila ototnya lemah maka akan mengganggu perkembangan motorik kasar dan halusnya tersebut.
Perkembangan motorik
Perkembangan motorik sangat dipengaruhi oleh organ otak. Otak lah yang mensetir setiap gerakan yang dilakukan anak.Semakin matangnya perkembangan system syaraf otak yang mengatur otot m,emungkinkan berkembangnya kompetensi atau kemampuan motorik anak. Perkembangan motorik anak dibagi menjadi dua:
1. Keterampilan motorik kasar meliputi kegiatan otot-otot besar seperti menggerakkan lengan dan berjalan.
2. Keterampilan motorik halus atau keterampilan manipulasi meliputi gerakan-gerakan menyesuaikan secara lebih halus, seperti ketangakasan jari .

Kemampuan motorik merepresentasikan keinginan anak. Misalnnya ketika anak melihat mainan dengan beraneka ragam, anak mempersepsikan dalam otaknnya bahwa dia ingin memainkannya. Persepsi tersebut memotivasi anak untuk melakukan sesuatu, yaitu bergerak untuk mengambilnya. Akibat gerakan tersebut, anak berhasil mendapatkan apa yang di tujunya yaitu mengambil mainan yang menarik baginya.

Teori tersebut pun menjelaskan bahwa ketika bayi di motivasi untuk melakukan sesuatu, mereka dapat menciptakan kemampuan motorik yang baru, kemampuan baru tersebut merupakan hasil dari banyak factor, yaitu perkembangan system syaraf, kemampuan fisik yang memungkinkannya untuk bergerak, keinginan anak yang memotivasinya untuk bergerak dan juga dapat dipengaruhi oleh lingkungan.
Selain berkaitan erat dengan fisik dan intelektual anak, kemampuan motorik pun berhubungan dengan aspek psikologis anak.
Namun secara ringkas perkembangan bayi dapat digolongkan dalam dua fase.
Masa Bayi Baru Lahir (New Born).
Masa ini dimulai dari sejak bayi lahir sampai bayi berumur kira-kira 10 atau 15 hari. Dalam perkembangan manusia masa ini merupakan fase pemberhentian (Plateau stage) artinya masa tidak terjadi pertumbuhan/perkembangan.
Ciri-ciri yang penting dari masa bayi baru lahir ini ialah:
 Periode ini merupakan masa perkembangan yang tersingkat dari seluruh periode perkembangan.
 Periode ini merupakan saat penyesuaian diri untuk kelangsungan hidup/ perkembangan janin.
 Periode ini ditandai dengan terhentinya perkembangan.
 Di akhir periode ini bila si bayi selamat maka merupakan awal perkembangan lebih lanjut.

Masa Bayi (Babyhood)
Masa ini dimulai dari umur 2 minggu sampai umur 4 tahun.
Masa bayi ini dianggap sebagai periode kritis dalam perkembangan kepribadian karena merupakan periode di mana dasar-dasar untuk kepribadian dewasa pada masa ini diletakkan.
Perkembangan Kepandaian Bayi 1 Tahun Pertama
Berikut adalah perkembangan bayi pada umumnya, namun perkembangan tiap bayi tentunya berbeda-beda satu sama lain.
1 bulan : Secara refleks dapat memegang benda yang menyentuh telapak tangannya.
2 bulan : Dapat menatap, dapat tersenyum, bersuara a, e, h
3 bulan : Menggerakkan benda yang dipegangnya, memandang gerakan benda dengan bola mata sampai ke sudut matanya
4 bulan : Bermain dengan kedua tangan dan memasukkan tangan ke mulut, tertawa, bergurau, tengkurap
5 bulan: Menggulingkan badan, menyentuh mainan, membedakan suara
6 bulan :Bertopang pada kedua tangan, memindahkan mainan dari satu tangan ke tangan lainnya, menoleh
7 bulan : Membalikkan badan, bermain dengan tangan dan kaki, mulai mengoceh
8 bulan : Belajar duduk, memperhatikan gerak gerik orang, tertarik pada bayangan sendiri dalam cermin
9 bulan : Merayap, dapat berdiri tegak bila dipegang, main cilukba/petak umpet
10 bulan : Berayun pada tangan dan lutut, belajar berdiri sambil berpegangan, menjepit benda dengan kedua jari tangan
11 bulan : Merangkak, belajar berjalan ke samping atau rambatanBerjalan bila kedua tangan dipegang
12 bulan : Berjalan sendiri, bermain kejar-kejaran, dapat mengerjakan tugas-tugas sederhana